Psychology Notes Unit 1 Psychology’s History and Its Approaches

Module 1: Psychology and Its History ● Who are we? What produces our thoughts? Feelings? Actions? Understandings? Psychology Is a Science ● Understanding science is, first, a passion to explore and understand without misleading or being misled ● No matter how sensible-seeming or wild an idea, you must ask if it works and see if data supports its predictions. ● c ● Talks about astrology, electroconvulsive therapy, and other seemingly “unfound” phenomena. I love this. Reminds me of my own mentality ● Humility is necessary because we are all vulnerable to error and should have an openness to a new perspective ● Critical thinking examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions ● How do they know that? What is this person’s agenda? Is the conclusion an anecdote, or an evidence? Does the evidence justify a cause-effect conclusion? ● Critical thinkers hate “I feel” judgements ● Critical thinkers don’t just look consider recent events from biased sources, they look for long-term ones that prove a claim-- like climate change. Once again, reminds me of me ● They recognize multiple perspectives ● Religious people view science as a threat but scientific legends were mad religious. I agree tho, you don’t have to be religious ● Critical thinking can lead to surprising findings like how newborns can recognize their mother’s by their odor. ● Critical inquiry sometimes debunks popular presumptions like how people used to believe how sleep-walkers act out their dreams and how opposites don’t actually attract ● Critical thinking also helps find the best policies through an understanding of common human nature. Prescientific Psychology ● We can trace many of psychology’s current questions back to historical philosophical and physiological approaches. ● How does our mind work? How does our body relate to our mind? How much of what we know comes built in? How much is acquired through experience? ● In ancient Greece, the philosopher Aristotle derived principles from careful observations and disagreed with his teacher by saying how knowledge is not preexisting ● The next 2000 years brought few enduring new insights into human nature, but that changed in the 1600s, when modern science began to flourish. ● René Descartes (1595–1650) agreed with Socrates and Plato about the existence of innate ideas and mind’s being “entirely distinct from body” and able to survive its death. ● Descartes was right that nerve paths are important and that they enable reflexes. Yet, genius though he was, and standing upon the knowledge accumulated from 99+ percent of our human history, he hardly had a clue of what today’s average 12-year-old knows. ● Francis Bacon (1561–1626) became one of the founders of modern science, and his influence lingers in the experiments of today’s psychological science. ● “All superstition is much the same whether it be that of astrology, dreams, omens . . . in all of which the deluded believers observe events which are fulfilled, but neglect and pass over their failure, though it be much more common.” - cool quote from Bacon dude ● John Locke wrote “An Essay Concerning Human Understanding”, in which he famously argued that the mind at birth is a tabula rasa—a “blank slate”—on which experi-ence writes. This idea, adding to Bacon’s ideas, helped form modern empiricism, the idea that what we know comes from experience, and that observation and experimentation enable scientific knowledge. Psychological Science is Born: Psychology’s First Laboratory ● University of Leipzig: First ever psychological laboratory experiment ● ended philosopher’s thinking about thinking. Two dudes pressed a key after 1. Hearing the sound the first time and 2. Being consciously aware of the sound . The consciously aware test took longer Psychological Science is Born: Psychology’s First Schools of Thought ● New science of psychology became organized into different branches/schools of thought, and each promoted by pioneering thinkers ● Early schools: structuralism, functionalism, behaviorism Structuralism ● Soon after receiving his Ph.D. in 1892, Wundt’s student Edward Bradford Titchener joined the Cornell University faculty and introduced structuralism. ● His method was to engage people in self-reflective introspection (looking inward), training them to report elements of their experience as they looked at a rose, listened to a metronome, smelled a scent, or tasted a substance. ● What were their immediate sensations, their images, their feelings? And how did these relate to one another? ● introspection required smart, verbal people. It also proved somewhat unreliable, its results varying from person to person and experience to experience. Functionalism ● Philosopher-psychologist William James thought it would be more fruitful to consider the evolved functions of our thoughts and feelings. ● As a functionalist, James encouraged explorations of down-to-earth emotions, memories, willpower, habits, and moment-to-moment streams of consciousness. ● James’ greatest legacy, however, came less from his laboratory than from his Harvard teaching and his writing. When not plagued by ill health and depression, James was an impish, outgoing, and joyous man, ● Introduced psychology to the public by writing Principles of Psychology in 1890 Psychology’s First Women ● Jame’s legacy continues bc he mentored Mary Whiton Calkins despite Harvard’s hesitance ● Calkins ended up being the first female president of the APA ● Margaret Floy-- Wrote “The Animal Mind” and bemae the second female APA president in 1921 ● She could not join the all-male organization of experimental psychologists ● In the U.S., Canada, and Europe, most psychology doctorates are now earned by women Psychological Science Matures ● In Psychology’s early days, many people shared with the English essayist C.S. Lewis the view that “there is only one thing, and only one in the whole universe which we know more about than we could learn from external observation. ● psychology was defined as “the science of mental life.” Behaviorism ● Provocative B. F. Skinner, dismissed introspection and redefined psychology as “the scientific study of observable behavior.” After all, they said, science is rooted in observation. You cannot observe a sensation, a feeling, or a thought, but you can observe and record people’s behavior as they respond to different situations. ● They further suggested that our behavior is influenced by learned associations, through a process called conditioning. Many agreed, and the behaviorists were one of two major forces in psychology well into the 1960s. Freudan (Psychoanalytic Psychology) ● Freudian psychology emphasized the ways our unconscious thought processes and our emotional responses to childhood experiences affect our behavior. Humanistic Psychology ● Led by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, found both Freudian psychology and behaviorism too limiting. ● Rather than focusing on the meaning of early childhood memories or the learning of conditioned responses, the humanistic psychologists focused on growth potential MCQ for Module 1 1. C 5. C 2. B 3. E 4. C    Module 2: Today’s Psychology and Its Approaches Contemporary Psychology ● Psychologists in the 1960s pioneered a cognitive revolution which led the field back into its early interests in cognition-- how our mind processes and retains information ● Cognitive psychology today continues its scientific exploration of how we perceive, process, and remember information and of how thinking and emotion interact in anxiety, depression, and other disorders ● Gave birth to cognitive neuroscience where researchers try to understand mental activity ● Today’s psychology works w both behavior and inner thoughts/feelings ● Psychology is defined as the science of behavior (anything an organism does) and mental processes (internal, subjective experiences we infer from behavior- sensations, perceptions, dreams, thoughts, beliefs, and feelings) ● Psychology is less of a set of findings than a way of asking and answering questions. Our aim is not merely to report results but also to show how researchers evaluate conflicting ideas ● The young science of psychology developed from the more established fields of philosophy and biology. ● Wundt was both a philosopher and a physiologist. James was an American philosopher. Freud was an Austrian physician. Ivan Pavlov, who pioneered the study of learning , was a Russian physiologist. Jean Piaget, the last century’s most influential observer of children, was a Swiss biologist. These “Magellans of the mind,” as Morton Hunt has called them, illustrate psychology’s origins in many disciplines and many countries. ● today’s psychologists are citizens of many lands. ● Thanks to international publications, joint meetings, and the Internet, collaboration and communication now cross borders. Psychology is growing and it is globalizing. The story of psychology continues to develop in many places, at many levels, with interests ranging from the study of nerve cell activity to the study of international conflicts. Evolutionary Psychology and Behavior Genetics ● Are our human traits present at birth, or do they develop through experience?: the nature–nurture issue. Descartes agreed ● Plato: inherit character and intelligence and that certain ideas are also inborn ● Aristotle: that there is nothing in the mind that does not first come in from the external world through the senses. Locke agreed ● Charles Darwin wrote Origin of Species explained the diversity he saw at an island he voyaged to by proposing the evolutionary process of natural selection. ● Natural selection: From among chance variations, nature selects traits that best enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment. ● Evolution also has become an important principle for twenty-first-century psychology and is used to both explain animal behaviors and structures ● The nature–nurture issue explore the relative contributions of biology and experience, asking, for example, how we humans are alike (because of our common biology and evolutionary history) and diverse (because of our differing environments). ● Nurture works on what nature endows. Our species is biologically endowed with an enormous capacity to learn and adapt. Moreover, every psychological event (every thought, every emotion) is simultaneously a biological event. Cross-Cultural and Gender Psychology ● What we can learn about people in general from psychological studies done in time and place often with participants from western, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic countries (WEIRD) ● Our culture shapes behavior and influences standards ● Share biological heritage unites us as a universal human family ● People with learning disorders exhibit the same brain malfunction regardless of background ● Variation in languages but still share deep principles of grammar ● Variation of feeling loneliness across cultures ● Gender differences makes differences in how we dream and express/detect emotions ● Psychology women and men are overwhelmingly similar and we learn things at the same age and exhibit the same emotions ● Even with specific attitudes and behaviors vary by gender or across cultures as often as they do, the underlying processes are much the same Positive Psychology ● Psychology’s first hundred years often focused on understanding and treating troubles such as abuse and anxiety, depression and disease, prejudice and poverty ● Human flourishing= curing diseases and ailments ● Positive psychology believes that happiness is a by product of a pleasant, engaged and meaningful life The BioPsychosocial Approach and Psychology’s Theoretical Perspectives ● Each of us are complex and a part of a larger social system. ● Each of us is also composed of smaller systems, such as our nervous system and body organs, which are composed of still smaller systems—cells, molecules, and atoms. ● Biopsychosocial approach examines biological, psychological, and socio-cultural viewpoints ● Behavioral perspective might attempt to determine which external stimuli trigger angry responses or aggressive acts. ● Cognitive perspective might study how our interpretation of a situation affects our anger and how our anger affects our thinking. ● Evolutionary perspective might analyze how anger facilitated the survival of our ancestors’ genes. ● Humanistic perspective might have been interested in understanding how angry feelings affect a person’s potential for growth. ● Modern-day positive psychology incorporates humanistic psychology’s emphasis on human flourishing. ● Psychodynamic perspective (which evolved from Freud’s psychoanalysis) might view an outburst as an outlet for unconscious hostility. ● Social-cultural perspective might explore how expressions of anger vary across cultural contexts. ● Like two-dimensional views of a three-dimensional object each of psychology’s perspectives is helpful. But each by itself fails to reveal the whole picture. ● Psychology influences modern culture. Knowledge transforms us and psychological studies change people’s behaviors/attitudes like views on women ● Psychology can’t answer ultimate questions about life ● Psychologists have gained insights into the brain and mind, dreams and memories, depression and joy ● The study deepens our appreciation for how humans perceive, think, feel, and act Use Psychology to Become a Stronger Person-- and a Better Student ● Suggestions: ○ Get a full night’s sleep (LMAOOO idk about that) ○ Make space for excersize (lol no) ○ Set long term goals (okay) ○ Have a growth mindset (kk) ○ Prioritize relationships (interesting) ● Psychology’s research also shows how we can learn and retain information. Many students assume that the way to cement new learning is to reread but repeated self testing and rehearsal is more important-- Testing effect ● To master information you must actively process it ● SQ3R study method incorporates: Surveying, Reading, Retrieving, Reviewing ● To study a module, first survey by taking a birds eye view ● Then read, actively searching for the answers to the questions ● Retrieve it’s main ideas to help learn and retain information more effectively ● Review: Read over notes you have taken with organization and write or say what a concept is before rereading ● Distribute your study time because spaced practice promotes better retention than massed practice because you’ll remember material better if you space it than if you cram it ● Learn to think critically ● Process class information actively by listening for main ideas and sub ideas of a lesson. ● Overlearn because it improves retention ● Bjork: spend less time on input and more time on output MCQ For Module 2:1.C 3.A 2. D 4.B Module 3: Subfields in Psychology ● The cluster of subfields in psychology is a meeting ground for different disciplines and a home for interests for those with wide ranged interests Basic and Applied Psychology ● In its diverse activities, from biological experimentation to cultural comparisons, the tribe of psychology is united by a common quest of describing and explaining behavior and the mind understanding it ● Some psychologists conduct basic research that builds psychology’s knowledge ● Biological psychologists explore the links between the body and the mind ● Developmental psychologists study our changing abilities from womb to tomb ● Educational psychologists study influences on teaching and learning ● Personality psychologists investigate our persistent traits ● Social psychologists explore how we view and affect one another ● Industrial-organizational psychologists use psychology’s principles and methods in the workplace to help organizations and companies select and train employees ● Human factors psychologists focus on the interaction of people, machines, and physical environments ● Psychology is a science but also a helping profession that guides people toward healthier relationships, overcoming anxiety/depression, by raising thriving children ● Counseling psychologists help people cope with challenges and crises including academic vocational and relationship issues to improve their personal and social functioning ● Clinical psychologists assess and treat people with mental, emotional, and behavior disorders ● Psychiatrists prescribe drugs and treat physical causes of psychological disorders ● Community psychologists work to create social and physical environments that are healthy for all Psychology’s Main subfield ● If you major in psychology in college you will graduate with a scientific mindset and an awareness of basic principles of human behavior ● Will prepare you for success in a variety of fiellds even if they are unrelated to psychology Basic research Subfields ● Cognitive psychologists: study thought processes and focus on such topics as perception, language, attention, problem solving, memory, judgment and decision making, forgetting, and intelligence. Research interests include designing computer-based models of thought processes and identifying biological correlates of cognition. ● Developmental Psychologists: conduct research on age-related behavioral changes and apply their scientific knowledge to educational, child-care, policy, and related settings. As a developmental psychologist, you would investigate change across a broad range of topics, including the biological, psychological, cognitive, and social aspects of development. ● Educational Psychologists: interested in the psychological processes involved in learning. They study the relationship between learning and physical and social environments, and they develop strategies for enhancing the learning process. As an educational psychologist, working in a university psychology department or school of education, ● Experimental Psychologists: are a diverse group of scientists who investigate a variety of basic behavioral processes in humans and other animals. Prominent areas of experimental research include comparative methods of science, motivation, learning, thought, attention, memory, perception, and language. ● Psychometric and Quantitative Psychologists: conduct research on age-related behavioral changes and apply their scientific knowledge to educational, child-care, policy, and related settings. As a developmental psychologist, you would investigate change across a broad range of topics, including the biological, psychological, cognitive, and social aspects of development. ● Social Psychologists: are interested in our interactions with others. Social psychologists study how our beliefs, feelings, and behaviors are affected by and influence other people. They study topics such as attitudes, aggression, prejudice, interpersonal attraction, group behavior, and leadership. As a social psychologist, you would probably be a college or university faculty member. Applied research Subfields ● Forensic Psychologists: apply psychological principles to legal issues. They conduct research on the interface of law and psychology, help to create public policies related to mental health, help law-enforcement agencies in criminal investigations, or consult on jury selection and deliberation processes. ● Health Psychologists: are researchers and practitioners concerned with psychology’s contribution to promoting health and preventing disease. As applied psychologists or clinicians, they may help individuals lead healthier lives by designing, conducting, and evaluating programs to stop smoking, lose weight, improve sleep, manage pain, prevent the spread of sexually transmitted infections, or treat psychosocial problems associated with chronic and terminal illnesses. ● Industrial-organizational Psychologists: study the relationship between people and their working environments. They may develop new ways to increase productivity, improve personnel selection, or promote job satisfaction in an organizational setting. Their interest include organizational structure and change, consumer behavior, and personnel selection and training. ● Neuropsychologists: investigate the relationship between neurological processes (structure and function of the nervous system) and behavior. As a neuropsychologist you might assess, diagnose, or treat central nervous system disorders, such as Alzheimer’s disease or stroke. ● Rehabilitation Psychologists: are researchers and practitioners who work with people who have lost optimal functioning after an accident, illness, or other event. As a rehabilitation psychologist, you would probably work in a medical rehabilitation institution or hospital. ● School Psychologists: are involved in the assessment of and intervention for children in educational settings. They diagnose and treat cognitive, social, and emotional problems that may negatively influence children’s learning or overall functioning at school. ● Sport Psychologists: study the psychological factors that influence, and are influenced by, participation in sports and other physical activities. Their professional activities include coach education and athlete preparation, as well as research and teaching. The Helping Professions ● Clinical Psychologists: promote psychological health in individuals, groups, and organizations. Some clinical psychologists specialize in specific psychological disorders. Others treat a range of disorders, from adjustment difficulties to severe psychopathology. Clinical psychologists might engage in research, teaching, assessment, and consultation. ● Community Psychologists: move beyond focusing on specific individuals or families and deal with broad problems of mental health in community settings. These psychologists believe that human behavior is powerfully influenced by the interaction between people and their physical, social, political, and economic environments. ● You have alot of options if you wish to pursue psychology in college