Material : Vitamins Definition and Types of Vitamins Vitamins come from the words Vita and amine. Vita means essential for life, while the antiberiberi factor that is thought to play a role is an amine bond. In 1920, the term vitamin was changed to vitamin because anti-factor substances are not always in amine bonds. The name change proposal was made by Drummond. The discovery of vitamin A by McCollum and Davis in 1913 marked the era of vitamins in health which is then obtained from a varied diet Vitamins are a group of nutrients that are needed in small amounts for various biochemical functions and which are generally not synthesized by the body and so must be supplied from food. Vitamins are a heterogeneous group of compounds with various metabolic functions that must be present in foods in small amounts to maintain normal metabolic integrity. Vitamins are needed in food in different amounts depending on the amount needed by the body and the body's capabilities absorb food and store it in the body. For each nutrient, there is a range of intake between values that are clearly inadequate, causing a clinical deficiency state, and values that far exceed the body's metabolic capacity, resulting in symptoms of toxicity. Between these two extremes lies an intake level sufficient for normal health and to maintain metabolic integrity. These conditions of clinical deficiency and toxicity cause specific diseases that can only be corrected by providing the necessary vitamin intake. Vitamin deficiencies can be single or multiple (more than one vitamin deficiency). The need for nutrients for each person is not the same if calculated based on body size or energy expenditure. The range of individual needs can range up to 25% of the average figure. Therefore, to assess dietary adequacy, it is necessary to establish a reference level of intake that is high enough to ensure that there is no deficiency or risk of toxicity. Different genders and ages have different vitamin intake needs. Types of vitamins can be classified based on their solubility properties. Based on their solubility, vitamins are divided into 2 types, namely: 1. Water-soluble vitamins: Vitamins C, B1, B2, B6, B12, niacin, tetrathidrofolic acid, pentothenic acid, and biotin. 2. Fat-soluble vitamins: Vitamins A, D, E, and K Water Soluble Vitamins Most water-soluble vitamins are components of enzyme systems that are widely involved in assisting energy metabolism. Water-soluble vitamins are usually not stored in the body and are excreted in small amounts in the urine. Therefore, water-soluble vitamins need to be consumed every day to prevent deficiencies that can interfere with normal body function. Some watersoluble vitamins include: Vitamins C, B1, B2, B6, B12, niacin, tetrathidrofolic acid, pentothenic acid, and biotin. Vitamin C Vitamin C is white crystals that dissolve easily in water. In a dry state, vitamin C is quite stable, but in a soluble state, vitamin C is easily damaged due to contact with air (oxidation), especially when exposed to heat. In the dry state vitamin C is quite stable, but deep The soluble state of vitamin C is easily damaged due to contact with air (oxidation), especially when exposed to heat. Oxidation is accelerated in the presence of copper and iron. Vitamin C is unstable in alkaline solutions, but is quite stable in acidic solutions. Vitamin C belongs to a group of vitamins that are very soluble in water, slightly soluble in alcohol and glycerol, but insoluble in non-polar solvents such as ether, benzene, chloroform and others. White crystals, odorless, acidic and stable in dry form. Because it is easily oxidized, vitamin C is a strong reducing agent. Another name for vitamin C is ascorbic acid. Vitamin C can be in the form of ascorbic acid, monodehydroascorbate, and dehydroascorbate.The structure of vitamin C is similar to the structure of monosaccharides, but contains an enediol group. In vitamin C there is an enediol group which functions in the hydrogen transfer system which shows the important role of this vitamin. Vitamin C is easily oxidized to the dehydro form, both of which are physiologically active and found in the body. Vitamin C can be oxidized to L-dehydroascorbic acid, especially if exposed to light, heating and alkaline conditions. Furthermore, if L-dehydroascorbic acid is further oxidized it will form 2,3 diketogulonic acid, then it can become oxalic acid and 1-threonic acid. The reaction of vitamin C to L-dehydroascorbic acid is reversible, while the other reactions are not. Vitamin C or ascorbic acid is a hexose derivative and is classified as a carbohydrate which is closely related to monosaccharides. Vitamin C can be synthesized from D-glucose and Dgalactosein plants and most animals. Vitamin C is found in 2 forms in nature, namely: L-hydro ascorbic acid (oxidized form). Reversible oxidation of Lascorbic acid to L-dehydroascorbic acid occurs when it comes into contact with copper, heat or alkali. Both forms of vitamin C are biologically active but the reduced form is the most active. Further oxidation of Ldehydroascorbic acid produces irreducible diketo L-gulonic acid and oxalate. Unfortunately, humans cannot synthesize vitamin C in their bodies, because they do not have the enzyme L-gulonolactone oxidase. Humans absolutely need vitamin C from outside the body to meet their needs The best known sources of ascorbate are fruit, especially citrus fruits and some types of vegetables. It is often recommended to get daily intake of ascorbate because ascorbate is not stored.Excess ascorbate will be excreted or metabolized. Both the advantages and disadvantages of giving vit. C in high doses is currently unknown, except that you will experience oxalate stones if you consume ascorbate in high doses (which is a result of ascorbate metabolism).This vitamin has a sour taste, is delicious for daily consumption, and has many functions for health. A person's vitamin C status is very dependent on age, gender, daily vitamin C intake, absorption and excretion ability, and the presence of certain diseases. The daily requirement for vitamin C is different for each age and gender. The need for vitamin C for ages 0-10 years ranges from 25-30 mg. Men and women aged 11-14 years need 35 mg of daily vitamin C, while those over 15 years old need around 40 mg. Pregnant women need vitamin C above 10 mg, while breastfeeding mothers need more than 30 mg. At intakes above around 100 mg/day, the body's capacity to metabolize vitamin C is saturated, and higher intakes will be excreted in the urine. However, additional rules state that vitamin C increases iron absorption and this depends on the presence of the vitamin in the intestine. Ascorbic acid has a special role in copper-containing hydroxylase and ÿ-ketoglutarate-linked ironcontaining hydroxylase. This acid also increased the activity of several other enzymes in vitro, although this reduced activity not specific. In addition, this acid has several non-enzyme effects due to its activity as a reducing agent and scavenger of free radicals. Much evidence from research supports the fact that vitamin C has an important role in various immunological mechanisms. Its high levels in white blood cells (10 to 80 times higher than plasma levels), especially lymphocytes, are rapidly depleted during infection. This condition is similar to cases of bleeding gums when there is a lack of vitamin C. Vitamin C has a role in the physiology of the human body, including: Helping to form and maintain the substance of intracellular segments in connective tissue in the body, namely callogen and compounds that strengthen tissue, protect the body against infection and help heal wounds, help form red blood cells and bone marrow, necessary for the growth of bones and teeth. The quality of tooth structure depends on the status of vitamin C during the period of tooth formation, reducing cholesterol levels, being involved in the immune mechanism in order to resist various diseases and toxins, repairing cells damaged by free radicals, inhibiting premature aging, inhibiting cancer cells. , especially lung, prostate, breast, colon, gallbladder and brain cancer. in the upper part of the small intestine and then enters the bloodstream via the portal vein. Average absorption is 90% for consumption between 20 and 120 mg daily. High consumption of up to 12 grams (as a pill) is only absorbed by 16%. Vitamin C is then carried to all tissues.The highest concentrations are in adrenal, pituitary and retinal tissue. The body can store up to 1500 mg of vitamin C if consumption reaches 100 mg a day. This amount can prevent scurvy for three months.Signs of scurvy will occur when the supply is down to 300 mg. Consumption exceeding the saturation level of various tissues is excreted in the urine in the form of oxalic acid. If consumption exceeds 100 mg a day, the excess will be excreted as ascorbic acid or as carbon dioxide through breathing. Even though the body contains a small amount of vitamin C, some will still be excreted. Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Thiamin contains sulfur (tio) and nitrogen (amine). The thiamin molecule consists of a pyrimidine ring bound to a thiazole ring.Thiamin in the form of the coenzyme Thiamin Pyriphosphate (TPP) or Triphosphate (TTP) plays an essential role in energy transformation, membrane and nerve conduction as well as in the synthesis of pentose and the reduced coenzyme form of niacin. This vitamin is often found in rice foods. In western countries where people consume a lot of alcohol, eat selep rice and suffer from chronic gastrointestinal diseases, this vitamin deficiency can occur. Thiamine has a central role in energy-producing metabolism, and especially carbohydrate metabolism. Thiamine diphosphate is a coenzyme for three muti-enzyme complexes that catalyze oxidative decarboxylation reactions: Pyruvate dehydrogenase in metabolism. carbohydrates, ÿ-ketoglutarate in the citric acid cycle and branched chain keto acid dehydrogenase in the metabolism of leucine, isoleucine and valine. Thiamine diphosphate provides a number of reactive carbons in the thiazole group which forms a carbanion which then adds a carbonyl group such as pyruvate. The additional compound then undergoes decarboxylation and releases CO2. Thiamine diphosphate is also a coenzyme for transketolase in the pentose phosphate pathway. Thiamine triphosphate plays a role in the transmission of nerve impulses, this compound phosphorylates chloride (Cl- ) in nerve cell membranes. Thiamine deficiency can cause 3 syndromes consisting of: Chronic peripheral nephritis syndrome, beriberi, which may or may not be related with heart failure and edema. Acute pernicious (fulminant) beriberi (shoshin beriberi) with predominant symptoms of heart failure and metabolic disorders without peripheral neuritis and Wernicke's encephalopathy accompanied by Korsakoff's psychosis, which is mainly related to alcohol and narcotic abuse. The role of thiamine diphosphate in pyruvate dehydrogenase means that in deficiency there is impaired conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA. In people on a high carbohydrate diet, it causes increased plasma lactate and pyruvate levels, which can lead to lifethreatening lactic acidosis. Deficiency that will occur can be determined by measuring erythrocyte transketolase. A 25% increase in transketolase activity upon thiamine pyrophosphate supplementation indicates deficiency.The total content in the body is 80 micromoles. Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) Riboflavin is a type of vitamin B complex that is soluble in water, yellow in color, has heat stability in acid and neutral pH, is easily reduced, and is resistant to oxidizing compounds. Riboflavin plays an important role in metabolismenergy producer. Riboflavin provides reactive groups of the coenzyme flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD). FMN is formed by ATP-dependent riboflavin phosphorylation, while FAD is synthesized by further reaction with ATP with the AMP group transferred to FMN. The main source of riboflavin in food is milk and milk products. In addition, because of its bright yellow color, riboflavin often used as a food additive. The structure of riboflavin can be seen in the following image. Flavin coenzyme is an electron carrier in oxidoreduction reactions. These reactions include the mitochondrial respiratory chain, key enzymes in fatty acid and amino acid oxidation, and the citric acid cycle. Reoxidation of reduced flavin in oxygenases and mixed function oxidases occurs through the formation of flavin radicals and flavin hydroperoxide, accompanied by the formation of superoxide and perhydroxyl radical intermediates as well as hydrogen peroxide. Therefore, flavin oxidase plays a significant role in total oxidant stress in the body. Riboflavin's role is in reactions including:        Oxidase of ÿ-amino acids by deaminase. Xanthine Oxidase in the breakdown of purines. Aldehyde dehydrogenase in the breakdown of aldehydes. Glycerol 3 phosphate dehydrogenase in transport in mitochondria. Succinate dehydrogenase in the citric acid cycle. Acyl CoA dh & flavoproteins in fatty acids. Dihydrolipol dehydrogenase in oxidative decarboxylation pyruvate, ÿ-ketoglutarate.  NADH dehydrogenation results in the formation of FMNH2 and FADH2 in the respiratory chain in mitochondria Riboflavin deficiency occurs along with other deficiencies in poor areas/people with poor eating habits. unusual. Isolated riboflavin deficiency is rare. Symptoms of riboflavin deficiency are not typical, including inflammation of the tongue, evident at the corners of the lips, dermatitis and anemia. Perju malnutrition is considered if symptoms of riboflavin deficiency are found. The requirement in adults is estimated at around 0.2 micromoles permegajoule of energy. Riboflavin is slowly excreted from the body because of the strong bond between the flavin coenzyme and each of its apoenzymes. Vitamin B3 (Niacin) Vitamin B3 (Niacin) is a water-soluble vitamin and generally consists of two types, namely mycotinic acid (C6H5O2N) and nicotinamide (C6H6ON2). Niacin is the generic term for nicotinic acid and its natural derivative nicotinamide (niacin amide). Niacin functions as a component of the coenzymes Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD) and Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate (NADP), which are present in all cells and act as factors for various oxidoreductases involved in glycolysis, fatty acid metabolism, tissue respiration and detoxification. In food, niacin is bound to proteins in coenzymes. Niacin is not a true vitamin because this substance can be synthesized in the body from the essential amino acid tryptophan. The two compounds nicotinic acid and nicotinamide have biological activity as niacin as the nicotinamide ring in the coenzymes NAD and NADH in oxidation/reduction reactions. About 60 mg of tryptophan is equivalent to 1 mg of niacin in the diet. The following is the structure of niacin. Foodstuffs that contain niacin include: Meat, wheat, corn, eggs and milk. Niacin is also found in cereals, but forms complex bonds with peptides and carbohydrates. The complex bond is niasitin (esterified niacin). The complex bonds in corn can be released by heating. Niacin is a vitamin that is very stable against heat, light and oxygen, so that during acquisition and storage the presence of niacin can be maintained .Niacin in the form of NAD is a source of ADP-ribose. Apart from its role as a coenzyme, NAD is a source of ADP-ribose for ADP-ribosylation of proteins and polyADP-ribosylation of nucleoproteins which play a role in DNA repair mechanisms. Niasi plays a role in enzymatic reactions in the body or metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins, namely as Coenzyme 1, namely NAD and Coenzyme II, namely NADP.Niacin deficiency will cause pellagra. Pellagra is characterized by sore throat, tongue and mouth, dermatitis on the hands, arms, legs, feet, skin and neck (first red, swollen, tender, then scaly skin and sometimes sores). Vitamin B5 (Pentothenic Acid) Vitamin B5 or pentothenic acid is a water-soluble white crystal, bitter in taste, more stable in the dissolved state than dry, and easily decomposed by acid, alkali and dry heat. In a neutral state Pantothenic Acid is resistant to wet heat. Vitamin B5 is a vitamin that is less stable against heat and acidic or alkaline environmental conditions. Some pantothenic acid derivatives include: calcium pantothenate, pantetine and panthenol. Calcium pantothenate has a structure similar to pantothenic acid, but the acid group is replaced with a calcium salt. The following is the structure of pantothenic acid. Several types of vitamin B5 have a number of biological activities.Pantothenate is vitamin B5 which is composed of a sulfihydryl group. The presence of this group makes pantetine the most biologically active vitamin B5. Pantothenate is provitamin B5 which is composed of an alcohol group, which is immediately converted in the body into pantothenic acid. The main sources of vitamin B5 are grains, chicken, beef, liver, kidney, yeast, egg yolk, broccoli, potatoes and royal jelly. Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine, Pyridoxal, Pyridoxamine) Vitamin B6 is a water-soluble vitamin that consists of a group with six related components: Pyridoxal, pyridoxine, pyridoxamine, and 5Phasphates (PLP, PNP, PMP: These components change from one to another through metabolic reactions). Vitamin B6 functions to maintain brain function and produce red blood cells. About 80% of the total vitamin B6 in the body is pyridoxal phosphate in muscle, most of which is related to glycogen phosphorylase. This form cannot be used in deiciency states, but is released in case of starvation, when glycogen stores are depleted, and can then be used primarily in the liver and kidneys to meet the increased gluconeogenesisrequirements of amino acids. The following is an overview of the structure of pyridoxine, pyridoxal, and pyridoxamine. Active pyridoxal is in the form of pyridoxal phosphate, which has a role in amino acid metabolism as a combination of bases between aldehydes and aminos in alpha amino acids, accelerating transamination of amino carbon bonds, decarboxylation and threonine aldolase activity and acting as a phosphorylase in the glycogenolysis reaction. Pyridoxal phosphate is a coenzyme for many enzymes involved in acid metabolism amino acids, especially transaminase and decarboxylation. This vitamin is also a cofactor of glycogen phosphorylase, and the phosphate group is important for catalysis. In addition, vitamin B6 is important for the work of steroid hormones. Pyridoxal phosphate removes the hormone receptor complex from binding to DNA and stops the hormone from working. Vitamin B6 status can be assessed by measuring erythrocyte transaminases. Vitamin B7 (Biotin) Biotin is an imidazole derivative synthesized by bacteria, forming active biotin in the form of carboxy biotin. The role of carboxy biotin, namely the presence of several enzymes whose activity depends on biotin, including pyruvate carboxylase, acetyl CoA carboxylase, propionyl CoA carboxylase and ÿ-methylcrotone CoA carboxylase. Biotin is cofactor of various carboxylase enzymes used in fatty acid synthesis and metabolism, gluconeogenesis and branched chain amino acid metabolism. Biotin is heat resistant, soluble in water and alcohol and is easily oxidized by administration of biotin, and a small number of adults experience a similar condition from eating large amounts of raw eggs. Raw eggs contain avidin, a protein that binds biotin so that it can be absorbed.Biotin deficiency is rare. The need for. This vitamin is very small and even then some of it can be fulfilled through synthesis by intestinal bacteria. Biotin is known to be a cofactor for several types of carboxylase enzymes. A number of babies experience dermatitis which can be treated Vitamin B9 (Folic Acid) Folic acid is a vitamin, included in the B vitamin group, and is an important element in DNA synthesis (deoxyribo nucleic acid). This element is needed as a coenzyme in pyrimidine synthesis. The active form of folate consists of a pteridine ring bound to p-amino benzoic acid (PABA), hich together form pteroic acid and glutamic acid.Folate is widely distributed in various plant and animal tissues, mainly as polyglutamate in the methyl or reduced formyl form. The richest sources of folic acid are yeast, liver, kidneys, green vegetables, cauliflower, broccoli; Sufficient amounts are found in foods made from milk, meat and fish, and to a small extent in fruit. Heating can damage 50- 90% of the folate found in food. Most of the folic acid from food comes in the form of polyglutamate. Absorption occurs throughout the small intestine, especially in the duodenum and proximal jejunum and 50-80% of it is carried to the liver and bone marrow. Folate is excreted through bile and urine. In the small intestinal mucosa, polyglutamate from food will be hydrolyzed by the enzyme pteroyl polyglutamathydrolase to become monoglutamate which then undergoes complete reduction/methylation to become 5 methyl tetrahydrofolate (5-methyl THF).Methyl THF enters cells and undergoes demethylation and conjugation.With the help of the methyl transferase enzyme, 5-methyl THF will release its methyl group to become tetrahydrofolate (THF). Methylcobalamin will gives the methyl group to homocysteine to form the amino acid methionine.