The Transformation of the U.S.from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society

ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 6.1 - The Rise of Big Business and Its Effects The late 19th century, known as the Gilded Age, saw the U.S. transition from an economy based on small-scale agriculture to one dominated by large-scale industry and urbanization. This transformation led to massive migrations, government interventions, and debates over national security as the U.S. adapted to rapid economic and social changes. A. Large-Scale Industrial Production and the “Gilded Age” 1. Technological Advancements • Inventions like the telephone (Alexander Graham Bell, 1876) and the light bulb (Thomas Edison, 1879) revolutionized communication and productivity. • Steel production (Bessemer Process) allowed for the construction of railroads, skyscrapers, and bridges, fueling urban expansion. • Assembly lines (Henry Ford later perfected this in 1913, but its foundations were laid in this period) increased factory efficiency. 2. Expanding International Communication and Trade Networks • Transatlantic telegraph cables improved global economic interactions. • Industrialized nations increasingly participated in global markets, leading to imperialistic policies to secure raw materials and new markets. 3. Government Policies Encouraging Growth ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 1 • Laissez-faire capitalism: The government had a hands-off approach to business regulation, allowing industries to grow with minimal interference. • High protective tariffs (e.g., the McKinley Tariff of 1890) encouraged domestic manufacturing by making imported goods more expensive. • Railroad subsidies: The government granted land and funding for the construction of railroads, facilitating westward expansion and industrialization. 4. Rise of Monopolies and Business Consolidation • Business leaders like John D. Rockefeller (Standard Oil) and Andrew Carnegie (Carnegie Steel) dominated industries through vertical and horizontal integration. • Trusts and holding companies formed to eliminate competition and control prices, leading to calls for government regulation. • The Sherman Antitrust Act (1890) was the first federal law aimed at curbing monopolies but was initially weak and rarely enforced. 5. Consumer Culture and Marketing • The rise of department stores (e.g., Marshall Field’s, Macy’s) and mail-order catalogs (Sears, Roebuck & Co.) allowed people nationwide to purchase goods. • Advertising expanded with newspapers, billboards, and branding strategies. B. Challenges to Industrialization 1. Demographic Issues and Regional Differences • Urbanization increased as people moved from rural areas to cities seeking factory jobs. • Southern states remained agrarian due to the devastation of the Civil War and continued reliance on sharecropping and tenant farming. 2. Labor Movements and Worker Struggles • Harsh factory conditions, low wages, long hours, and child labor led to worker discontent. • Labor unions like the Knights of Labor (1869) and American Federation of Labor (AFL, 1886) emerged to fight for workers’ rights. • Major strikes: ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 2 • Great Railroad Strike of 1877 – first nationwide labor strike, suppressed by federal troops. • Haymarket Riot (1886) – bombing at a labor protest in Chicago led to antiunion sentiment. • Homestead Strike (1892) – violent clash between Carnegie Steel workers and private security forces. • Pullman Strike (1894) – nationwide railroad strike crushed by federal troops. C. Westward Migration and Economic Instability 1. New Systems of Farming & Transportation • The Homestead Act (1862) encouraged settlement by offering free land to settlers willing to farm it for five years. • Mechanization of agriculture increased productivity but also led to overproduction, causing falling crop prices. • Transcontinental railroads (completed 1869) connected markets but also increased debt for small farmers. 2. Economic Instability and Conflicts • Panic of 1893: One of the worst economic depressions of the 19th century, caused by railroad bankruptcies and bank failures. • The Populist Party (People’s Party, 1892) emerged to represent struggling farmers and laborers, advocating for: • Free silver (bimetallism) to create inflation and ease debt. • Regulation of railroads and big business. • Direct election of senators and other democratic reforms. 6.2 - Industrialization and Its Impact on Immigrants, Minorities, and Women Industrial growth increased opportunities for many but also deepened social inequalities. A. Increased Migration and Urbanization 1. International and Internal Migration ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 3 • New Immigrants (from Southern and Eastern Europe) arrived in large numbers, settling in ethnic enclaves in cities. • Many African Americans moved north in an early wave of the Great Migration to escape Jim Crow laws. 2. Social Inequality and Reform Movements • Tenement housing led to overcrowded, unsanitary conditions in cities. • Settlement houses (e.g., Hull House, founded by Jane Addams) provided education and aid to immigrants and the poor. • Women’s suffrage movement gained momentum, with leaders like Susan B. Anthony advocating for voting rights. B. Native American Displacement and Assimilation 1. US Military Conflicts and Native Displacement • Battle of Little Bighorn (1876): Lakota Sioux victory against U.S. forces. • Wounded Knee Massacre (1890): U.S. troops killed hundreds of Sioux, ending major Native resistance. 2. Assimilation Policies • Dawes Act (1887): Divided tribal lands into individual plots to encourage assimilation into white society, but much land was lost to settlers. • Boarding schools forced Native children to abandon their cultures. 6.3 - The Gilded Age: Cultural and Political Changes A. Politics and Big Business Influence 1. Economic Issues and Political Corruption • Tariff debates: Republicans favored high tariffs to protect industry, while Democrats wanted lower tariffs. • Currency debate (Gold vs. Silver Standard): Farmers and Populists wanted inflationary silver, while industrialists favored the gold standard. • Political machines (e.g., Tammany Hall, led by Boss Tweed) controlled city governments through bribery and corruption. 2. Calls for Reform ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 4 • Pendleton Civil Service Act (1883): Established merit-based hiring for government jobs to curb corruption. • Interstate Commerce Act (1887): First federal attempt to regulate railroads and prevent monopolistic practices. B. Cultural and Intellectual Movements 1. Social Darwinism: Applied Darwin’s theory of natural selection to business and society, justifying wealth disparities. 2. Gospel of Wealth: Carnegie argued that the rich should use their wealth to benefit society. 3. Social Gospel Movement: Christian-based reform movement aimed at helping the poor. Conclusion The period from 1877-1898 marked a dramatic shift in U.S. society, economy, and politics. Industrialization fueled economic growth but led to social and labor conflicts. Migration and urbanization changed demographics, while political corruption and reform movements shaped national policies. The Gilded Age laid the foundation for Progressive Era reforms in the early 20th century. 6.1 - The Rise of Industrial Capitalism in the U.S. The period between 1865-1898 saw the United States shift from an agrarian society to a modern industrial economy. This transformation was fueled by technological advances, large-scale production, and new markets, allowing businesses to expand at an unprecedented rate. Part One: Causes of Industrial Production and Modern Capitalism Factors of Production Necessary for Industrialization A country must possess key factors of production to transition into an industrial power. The United States had all four of these in abundance: A. Natural Resources – The U.S. had vast amounts of coal, oil, iron, and timber, essential for industrial growth. ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 5 B. Labor Supply – A growing population, including immigrants and rural-to-urban migrants, provided cheap labor. C. Capital (Money & Investments) – Wealthy investors and banks provided funds to build factories, railroads, and infrastructure. D. Entrepreneurship & Innovation – Business leaders such as Carnegie, Rockefeller, and Vanderbilt developed new business strategies and utilized new technologies to maximize efficiency. How America Thrived in All Four Areas A. Natural Resources – The discovery of oil in Pennsylvania (1859) and vast coal mines in the Midwest powered factories and trains. B. Labor Supply – Millions of European immigrants (Irish, Italian, German, and Eastern European) and Chinese immigrants entered the workforce. C. Capital Investment – Banks and wealthy industrialists funded infrastructure projects and new factories. D. Innovation & Technology – The Bessemer Process, the assembly line, and the expansion of the railroad system allowed industries to grow efficiently. Can Any Factors of Production Be Overcome? • Natural resources can sometimes be overcome by importing materials from other countries (e.g., Britain and Germany relied on imported raw materials for their industrialization). • Labor shortages can be addressed by immigration policies and mechanization. • Capital shortages can be overcome through foreign investment or government support (such as subsidies). New Improvements in Transportation and Communication Railroads & Industrialization Railroads played a key role in triggering industrialization: • Connected raw materials to factories (coal, iron, timber) • Created national markets, allowing goods to be transported more quickly ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 6 • Enabled westward expansion, making farming and settlement more accessible • Boosted steel and coal industries, which were essential for railroad construction New Business & Mining Opportunities (1860-1900) Due to Railroads • Mining booms in the West (gold in California, silver in Nevada, copper in Montana). • Timber and cattle ranching expanded due to railroad access. • Meatpacking industry grew as cattle from the Midwest were transported to cities. The “Iron Horse” as the Model Corporation The railroad industry became the blueprint for modern business practices: • Massive capital investment & stock markets (railroad companies were among the first to sell stocks on a large scale). • Standardized business operations (schedules, time zones, and uniform rail widths were established). • Monopolistic practices (railroad barons like Cornelius Vanderbilt consolidated rail companies to control pricing). Expansion of Railroad Track (1860-1900) • 1860: 30,000 miles of track • 1900: 193,000 miles of track Role of Immigrants in Railroad Construction • Union Pacific (built from the East to West) – Irish immigrants and former Civil War veterans. • Central Pacific (built from West to East) – Chinese immigrants, who worked under dangerous conditions, often facing discrimination. Wabash v. Illinois (1886) & Government Regulation of Railroads • The Supreme Court ruled that states could not regulate railroads because railroads were interstate businesses, placing regulation under federal control. ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 7 • This ruling led to the creation of the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC, 1887), marking the first federal attempt to regulate big business. Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) & Government Regulation • Created to oversee railroad pricing and prevent unfair practices. • However, it was initially weak due to loopholes and lack of enforcement power. • Set a precedent for future regulation of monopolies (e.g., Sherman Antitrust Act, 1890). New Innovations in Communication Telegraphs & Telephones • Telegraph (Samuel Morse, 1837) – Allowed instant long-distance communication and connected businesses and markets. • Telephone (Alexander Graham Bell, 1876) – Revolutionized personal and business communication, expanding national and international business operations. Innovations Enhancing Industrialization Bessemer Process & Steel Production • Allowed mass production of steel, replacing iron for construction. • Enabled skyscrapers, bridges (Brooklyn Bridge, 1883), and expanded railroads. Mining & Extraction of Key Resources A. Coal – Powered trains and factories. B. Iron – Used in construction and railroads. C. Oil – Became essential for machinery and later automobiles. The Growing Wealth Gap Between 1880-1900, industrialization created massive income inequality. Year Rich-Poor Gap ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 8 1880 Top 10% owned 75% of wealth 1890 Top 10% owned 80% of wealth 1900 Top 10% owned 90% of wealth • Factory workers earned an average of $500 per year, while industrialists like Rockefeller and Carnegie amassed millions. Captains of Industry vs. Robber Barons Andrew Carnegie & Vertical Integration • Controlled all aspects of steel production, from mining to transportation to manufacturing. • Allowed Carnegie to reduce costs and outcompete rivals. John D. Rockefeller & Horizontal Integration • Standard Oil dominated the oil industry by buying out competitors and forming trusts. • By 1880, controlled 90% of U.S. oil production. Philanthropy • Carnegie donated over $350 million to build libraries, schools, and universities (e.g., Carnegie Hall, Carnegie Mellon University). • Rockefeller donated over $500 million to medical research and education (e.g., University of Chicago). Railroad Barons & Monopolies • Cornelius Vanderbilt controlled most railroads in the Northeast, consolidating smaller companies into a single monopoly. Personal Reflection: Were Carnegie & Rockefeller Captains of Industry or Robber Barons? • Arguments for “Captains of Industry” • Created jobs and modernized the economy. • Gave away much of their wealth to philanthropy. • Arguments for “Robber Barons” ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 9 • Exploited workers and used unethical business tactics. • Crushed competition through monopolies. Conclusion The industrialization of the U.S. (1865-1898) transformed the economy, workforce, and social structure. While it created wealth and modernization, it also led to worker exploitation, economic inequality, and the rise of monopolies. This era set the stage for the Progressive Era (1900s), which sought to reform the excesses of industrial capitalism. Era #6 (1865-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. into an Industrialized & Urbanized Society Overview Between 1865 and 1898, the United States transitioned from an agricultural economy to a rapidly industrializing and urbanized society. Technological advances, mass production methods, and expanding markets encouraged the rise of industrial capitalism, bringing significant social, economic, and political changes. Factors of Production For industrialization to thrive, four key factors of production were necessary: 1. Land (Natural Resources) Industrial nations require a variety of natural resources to fuel production and expansion. Essential resources in the late 19th century: Coal – Powered steam engines, railroads, and factories. ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 10 Iron & Steel – Used for construction, railroads, and machinery. Copper – Crucial for electrical wiring and industrial machinery. Lumber – Supported railroad construction and urban expansion. Gold & Silver – Became vital for monetary trade and economic stability. 2. Labor Supply Industrialization increased demand for both skilled and unskilled labor. Population Growth: The U.S. population doubled every 25 years. Internal migration led to a shift from rural areas to urban centers. Immigration Boom (1870-1920): New immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe (Italians, Poles, Russians, Greeks) arrived in record numbers. Chinese immigrants played a major role in railroad construction and mining. 3. Capital (Wealth & Investment) Many Americans accumulated capital through: Inheritance Savings Long working hours and low wages Methods of capital investment: Buying shares in corporations Seeking bank loans to start businesses Government subsidies for industries like railroads 4. Entrepreneurial Ability ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 11 Industrialization was driven by risk-takers willing to start businesses and innovate. Compulsory public education provided citizens with literacy and mathematical skills necessary for entrepreneurship. Capitalism encouraged innovation, leading to rapid technological advancements and business expansion. Railroads: The First National Highway The U.S. government provided land grants and subsidies to railroad corporations to facilitate expansion. Railroad Expansion: 1860: 35,000 miles of track. 1900: Over 192,500 miles of track. The government allocated 155.5 million acres of land in a checkerboard pattern to connect the East and West. Railroads as a Model Corporation Corporate Structure Developed: Investors elected boards to oversee operations. Creation of executive positions: CEO, CFO, Chief Engineer. Specialized departments emerged: Finance, Sales, Marketing, Communications, Research & Development. Labor force included track layers, railcar operators, cargo loaders. Impact on Other Industries: Railroads stimulated growth in coal mining, steel production, lumber yards, and telegraph lines. Enabled the development of a national market by improving transportation of goods and people. ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 12 Government Involvement & Railroad Construction 1862: Republican-backed Congress provided financial support for Union Pacific & Central Pacific Railroads to complete the Transcontinental Railroad. Labor Force: Central Pacific: Chinese immigrants built tracks across the Sierra Nevada Mountains. Union Pacific: Civil War veterans, Irish immigrants, and African Americans worked from Omaha to Promontory Point, Utah. Railroad Regulation & Challenges Panic of 1873: Caused by over-speculation in railroads and inflation concerns. Grant Administration Scandals: Credit Mobilier scandal created distrust in banks and government. Grange Movement: Farmers protested unfair pooling, rebates, and shipping costs imposed by railroads. Wabash v. Illinois (1886): Supreme Court ruled that only the federal government, not states, could regulate interstate commerce. Interstate Commerce Act (1887): Created the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to regulate railroad rates and prevent unfair practices. First large-scale federal legislation aimed at regulating corporations. Captains of Industry vs. Robber Barons 440,000 patents were issued between 1860-1900, driving industrial innovation. Notable Industrialists Cornelius Vanderbilt – Built a railroad empire, investing in New York’s Grand Central Station. ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 13 Leland Stanford – Benefited from government land grants while building the Central Pacific Railroad. Jay Gould – Speculated in railroad stocks and attempted to manipulate the gold market during the Grant administration. Andrew Carnegie (Steel Industry): Bessemer Process revolutionized steel production. Vertical Integration controlled all aspects of production (coal, iron, limestone, shipping). John D. Rockefeller (Oil Industry): Standard Oil Trust controlled 90% of U.S. oil refining through horizontal integration (buying out competitors). Philanthropy Carnegie and Rockefeller donated millions to libraries, universities, and medical research. Technological Innovations & Industry Growth Electricity Thomas Edison: Founded Menlo Park laboratory, developed over 1,093 patents including the lightbulb, phonograph, and motion picture camera. George Westinghouse: Competed with Edison, promoting alternating current (AC), leading to consumer appliances and electric grids. Telecommunications Telegraphs & Railroads: Telegraph lines were built alongside railroad tracks to improve communication. Samuel Morse: Invented the telegraph and Morse Code. Alexander Graham Bell (1876): Developed the telephone, revolutionizing communication. ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 14 Women as Switchboard Operators: Created new job opportunities for women. Agricultural Machinery & Transportation Steel plows, mechanical harvesters, and fertilizers increased agricultural production fivefold. Refrigerated railcars transported perishable goods: West: Almonds, grapes, citrus fruits. Plains: Wheat, corn. South: Peanuts, rice, tobacco, cotton. Farmers’ Alliances & the Populist Movement Grange Movement: Farmers organized against railroad monopolies and high interest rates. Populist Party (1890s): Supported bimetallism (gold & silver standard) to increase money supply. Advocated for nationalization of railroads. Called for direct election of Senators and voter reforms (initiatives, referendums, recalls). Conclusion The industrial boom of 1865-1898 reshaped the U.S. economy, leading to urbanization, technological advancements, and economic inequality. While industrialization created massive wealth and modernization, it also led to worker exploitation, corporate monopolies, and farmer discontent, setting the stage for Progressive Era reforms in the early 20th century. ERA #6 (1865-1898) – INDUSTRIALIZATION & URBANIZATION Overview: The transformation of the United States from an agricultural to an increasingly industrialized and urbanized society brought about significant social, ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 15 economic, and political changes. The migrations that accompanied industrialization transformed both urban and rural areas of the U.S., causing dramatic social and cultural changes. Jefferson’s Vision for America Thomas Jefferson envisioned America as a nation of self-sufficient farmers where each family could sustain itself without reliance on government influence. Louisiana Purchase (1803): Doubled the size of the U.S., reinforcing the idea that America could remain a nation of independent farmers. This agrarian vision was challenged by industrialization and Manifest Destiny, which encouraged expansion westward and the development of industry. Movement Towards Industrialization 1. Pre-Industrial Labor System Work was done by manpower, with all family members contributing to farming and household work. Animal power (mules, oxen, horses) replaced manpower for efficiency in agriculture and transport. Skilled craftsmen worked from home under the cottage system, producing goods for local markets. 2. Industrialization Entrepreneurs recruited skilled craftsmen into centralized factories, dividing labor to increase production efficiency. Machines replaced both man and animal power, marking the birth of large-scale industrial productionafter the Civil War. Factor of Production: Labor Surplus labor supply after the Civil War led to a shift from agriculture to industry. ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 16 Migration trends: Rural to urban migration: Many southerners moved north and west for industrial jobs. New wave of immigrants (post-Civil War): Origins: Italy, Greece, Russia, Poland, Balkan regions. Push factors: Religious persecution, political instability, economic hardships. Pull factors: Political freedom, economic opportunities, social mobility in America. Immigration & Migration Immigration Centers: Ellis Island (New York): Processed European immigrants. Angel Island (San Francisco): Processed Asian immigrants. Challenges Faced by Immigrants: Discrimination and nativism. Overcrowded tenement housing. Poor working conditions in factories. Cultural and language barriers. Urbanization: The Rise of Cities Factory growth created a demand for labor, leading to population booms in cities. Consequences of urban growth: Overcrowding → Housing shortages. Increased pollution and disease. Crime rates rose due to dense urban populations. ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 17 Income inequality widened, with extreme wealth disparities. Steel revolutionized urban landscapes, allowing for bridges, skyscrapers, and industrial expansion. Growth of an Urban Culture Jefferson’s vision of a self-sufficient agrarian society ended as industrialization drove urban migration. Mechanization in agriculture reduced labor needs, pushing people to cities for jobs. Demographic shifts: 1900: U.S. population = 80 million. 1920: U.S. population = 105 million. Urban population tripled (40% of Americans lived in cities). New York City had over 3.5 million people, becoming the second-largest city in the world. Urban Landscape & Infrastructure Developments Challenges of Urbanization: Congestion and sanitation issues → Spread of disease. Rising crime rates. Air and water pollution. Urban Solutions: Development of parks & recreation areas. Sanitation departments, fire & police departments established. Municipal programming improved public safety and infrastructure. Social Responses to Urbanization 1. Settlement House Movement: ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 18 Created to aid new immigrants. Hull House (Chicago) – Founded by Jane Addams to provide: Shelter, food, and clothing. Educational opportunities and job assistance. Support for immigrant assimilation into American society. 2. Tenement Housing: Overcrowded, unsanitary apartments for poor urban workers. Lacked plumbing, ventilation, and proper sanitation. Economic & Social Theories Emerging During Industrialization 1. Laissez-Faire Economics (Adam Smith): Minimal government regulation in business affairs. Allowed for monopolies and unchecked corporate power. 2. Social Darwinism (Herbert Spencer): “Survival of the fittest” applied to business and society. Justified wealth inequality, arguing that the strongest businesses (and people) would naturally rise to the top. 3. Social Gospel Movement (Washington Gladden): Called for Christian ethics to be applied to social and economic problems. Encouraged charity and social justice. 4. Gospel of Wealth (Andrew Carnegie): Advocated that the wealthy had a moral obligation to contribute to society through philanthropy. Led to massive donations to libraries, schools, and universities. 5. Communist Manifesto (Karl Marx): Criticized capitalism and wealth inequality. ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 19 Called for workers’ revolution to redistribute wealth. Impact of American Industrialization & Urbanization Rise of major cities as economic centers. Class tensions increased due to wealth disparities. Labor unions emerged to fight for workers' rights. Reform movements sought to address urban and workplace issues. Immigration & migration patterns changed America’s demographic landscape. This period marked a dramatic shift in the U.S., moving from Jefferson’s agrarian vision to an industrial powerhouse, forever changing the nation’s economic, social, and political landscape. Era #6 (1865-1898) The transformation of the US from an agricultural to an increasingly industrialized and urbanized society brought about significant social, economic, political, and environmental changes. 6.2: The migrations that accompanied industrialization transformed both urban and rural areas of the US and caused dramatic social & cultural change. Part One: Migration and Urbanization Both international and internal migration increased urban populations and fostered the growth of a new urban culture. Reasons for Immigrating to the US from 1870-1920 Push Factors (Reasons Immigrants Left Their Home Countries) 1. Economic Hardship – Lack of job opportunities, poverty, and failing economies pushed many to leave. 2. Political Instability – Wars, revolutions, and oppressive governments led people to seek safety and freedom. ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 20 3. Religious Persecution – Many Jews from Eastern Europe, for example, fled pogroms (organized massacres). 4. Lack of Land – Many European countries had limited land available for farming. 5. Famine and Natural Disasters – Events such as the Irish Potato Famine forced people to seek better living conditions elsewhere. Pull Factors (Reasons Immigrants Chose the U.S.) 1. Economic Opportunities – The U.S. had a booming industrial economy, with many jobs in factories, railroads, and construction. 2. Political & Religious Freedom – The U.S. offered religious tolerance and democratic government. 3. Land Availability – The Homestead Act (1862) provided land to settlers willing to move west. 4. Family Connections – Many immigrants had relatives already in America who encouraged them to come. 5. Advancements in Transportation – Steamships made migration faster and cheaper, encouraging movement. Old Immigrants vs. New Immigrants Old Immigrants (1800-1850) • Came primarily from Northern and Western Europe (Britain, Germany, Ireland, Scandinavia). • Mostly Protestant, except for the Irish (Catholic). • Many settled in rural areas and became farmers. • Were generally more accepted by American society. New Immigrants (1880-1920) • Came from Southern and Eastern Europe (Italy, Greece, Poland, Russia, the Balkans). • Included more Catholics, Jews, and Orthodox Christians (less accepted by Protestant-majority America). ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 21 • Many were unskilled workers and settled in urban areas, working in factories. • Faced more discrimination due to cultural and religious differences. Ethnic Enclaves Examples of Ethnic Enclaves • Little Italy (New York, Chicago) – Italian immigrants. • Chinatown (San Francisco, New York) – Chinese immigrants. • Germantown (Milwaukee, St. Louis) – German immigrants. • Lower East Side (New York) – Jewish immigrants. • Polish communities (Chicago, Detroit). Why Did Immigrants Congregate in These Areas? • Familiarity – They could speak their native language, find familiar food, and practice traditions. • Support Networks – They could receive help from others in their community, including job leads and housing. • Mutual Aid Societies – Many formed organizations to provide financial and social support. Short-Term Impact: • Helped immigrants adjust to American life more easily. • Preserved cultural traditions, languages, and customs. • Created tight-knit communities within large cities. Long-Term Impact: • Led to cultural blending, as aspects of immigrant cultures influenced mainstream American society. • Contributed to economic growth, as immigrant labor fueled industrialization. • Some enclaves persisted for generations, shaping cities’ cultural landscapes. Cultural Exchanges in the Late 19th Century ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 22 • Food – Italian pizza, German sausages, and Jewish bagels became popular in American cuisine. • Language – Many English words and slang terms originated from immigrant languages. • Music & Entertainment – Immigrants contributed to jazz, vaudeville, and theater. • Labor & Unions – Immigrants played a key role in labor movements, fighting for workers’ rights. • Holiday Celebrations – St. Patrick’s Day (Irish) and Oktoberfest (German) became mainstream. Challenges Faced by New Immigrants • Discrimination & Nativism – Many Americans viewed new immigrants as a threat to jobs and culture. • Poor Working Conditions – Long hours, low wages, and dangerous factory work. • Language Barriers – Many immigrants struggled to learn English. • Overcrowded Housing – Many lived in tenements with poor sanitation and high disease rates. How Did Immigrants Adjust? • Settlement Houses – Places like Jane Addams’ Hull House (Chicago) and the Henry Street Settlement (New York) provided housing, education, and job assistance. • Community Support – Religious institutions and ethnic organizations helped with adjustment. • Public Education – Helped immigrant children learn English and assimilate. Organizations Helping Immigrants Assimilate • Settlement Houses – Provided housing, education, and job placement. • Religious Groups – Catholic and Jewish charities assisted newcomers. • Labor Unions – Protected immigrant workers from exploitation. ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 23 Ellis Island & Angel Island • Ellis Island (New York, East Coast) – Processed mainly European immigrants. • Angel Island (San Francisco, West Coast) – Processed mainly Asian immigrants, often with stricter entry requirements. • Both – Medical exams, legal inspections, and detainment for some immigrants before entry. Political Machines & Tammany Hall What Were Political Machines? • Organizations that controlled city governments by exchanging favors for votes. Tammany Hall (New York City) • Led by Boss Tweed, it controlled NYC politics in the late 19th century. • Helped immigrants (especially the Irish) by providing jobs and housing in exchange for political support. How Did Political Machines Gain Influence? • Gave Immigrants Jobs – Helped them find work in exchange for votes. • Provided Basic Needs – Food, coal, and rent assistance. • Helped with Citizenship – Fast-tracked naturalization for political loyalty. Life in a Tenement • Overcrowded – Families packed into one-room apartments. • Poor Sanitation – No indoor plumbing, leading to disease outbreaks. • Unsafe Conditions – Fire hazards, lack of ventilation, and high crime rates. • Child Labor – Many children worked in factories or on the streets to help their families survive. Social Classes & Industrialization Upper Class Jobs Middle Class Jobs Lower Class Jobs ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 24 Industrialists, Bankers, Teachers, Doctors, Lawyers, Factory Workers, Miners, Railroad Tycoons Accountants Domestic Servants • Industrialization led to a growing middle class – White-collar jobs expanded as businesses needed managers, accountants, and clerks. New Leisure & Recreation in Cities A. Amusement Parks – Coney Island, Chicago’s White City. B. Sports – Baseball, boxing, and horse racing grew in popularity. C. Theater & Vaudeville – Live entertainment featuring music, comedy, and drama. D. Public Parks – Central Park in NYC provided green spaces for city dwellers. Chapter 17: The Transformation of the Trans-Mississippi West, 1860–1900 Chapter Introduction Overview: The chapter examines the significant changes in the TransMississippi West from 1860 to 1900, focusing on the displacement of Native Americans, federal government policies, economic development through mining, ranching, and farming, and the creation of the "Wild West" image. It also discusses the establishment of national parks. Key Themes 1. Transformation of Native American Life: The destruction of traditional Native American ways of life due to westward expansion, government policies, and environmental exploitation. 2. Role of the Federal Government: Significant involvement in the settlement of the West through policies like the Homestead Act, the Pacific Railroad Act, and the establishment of reservations. 3. Economic Development: Central role of mining, ranching, and farming in the economic transformation of the West, often at the expense of Native ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 25 Americans and the environment. 4. Cultural Legacy: Creation of the "Wild West" myth and efforts to preserve natural landscapes through national parks. 17-1 Native Americans and the Trans-Mississippi West 17-1.1 The Plains Indians: Family, Gender, and Religion Diversity of Plains Tribes: Tribes like the Lakota Sioux, Cheyenne, Comanche, and Apache had distinct cultures but shared a nomadic lifestyle centered around bison hunting. Family and Social Structure: Extended family units with decision-making through consensus. Women played vital roles in tanning hides, gathering resources, and maintaining camp life. Spiritual Beliefs: Central to Plains Indian life, with rituals like the Sun Dance for spiritual power. Impact of White Settlement: Disruption of traditional life due to settlers and the decimation of bison herds, reducing the population from millions to a few thousand by the 1880s. 17-1.2 The Assault on Nomadic Indian Life Reservation Policy: Shift from treating the West as a vast Indian reserve to establishing smaller reservations in the 1850s, leading to conflicts like the Sand Creek Massacre (1864). Treaties and Broken Promises: Medicine Lodge Treaty (1867) and Fort Laramie Treaty (1868) aimed to relocate tribes to reservations, often enforced by the U.S. Army. Red River War (1874–1875): Marked the end of Native American independence on the southern Plains through brutal tactics. 17-1.3 Custer’s Last Stand, 1876 Black Hills Conflict: Discovery of gold led to increased pressure on the Sioux, despite the 1868 Fort Laramie Treaty. ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 26 Battle of Little Bighorn: Defeat of Custer by Sioux and Cheyenne warriors led by Sitting Bull, followed by intensified U.S. Army efforts to subdue the Sioux. Aftermath: Public support for harsher measures against Native Americans, leading to a campaign of attrition. 17-1.4 “Saving” the Indians Assimilation Efforts: Reformers like Helen Hunt Jackson advocated for assimilation, leading to the Dawes Severalty Act (1887) and Indian boarding schools. Impact of the Dawes Act: Loss of millions of acres of Native American land and disruption of traditional communal ways of life. 17-1.5 The Ghost Dance and the End of Indian Resistance, 1890 Ghost Dance Movement: Religious movement led by Wovoka promising the restoration of traditional Native American life. Wounded Knee Massacre: U.S. Army massacre of over 300 Sioux, marking the end of armed resistance on the Great Plains. Legacy of Resistance: Persistence of Native American cultures and traditions despite devastation. Key Events and Legislation Homestead Act (1862): Provided 160 acres of land to settlers who improved it. Pacific Railroad Act (1862): Funded the construction of the transcontinental railroad. Dawes Severalty Act (1887): Aimed to assimilate Native Americans by dividing reservation land into individual allotments. Wounded Knee Massacre (1890): Final major conflict between the U.S. Army and Native Americans. Focus Questions 1. How was Indian life on the Great Plains transformed? ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 27 Disrupted by the loss of bison, forced relocation to reservations, and assimilation policies. 2. What roles did the federal government, the army, and railroads play? Government enforced removal policies, the army suppressed resistance, and railroads facilitated settlement and economic exploitation. 3. How did mining, ranching, and farming shape the West? Drove economic growth but led to environmental degradation and displacement of Native Americans. 4. How was the Wild West image created? Popularized through shows like Buffalo Bill’s Wild West and romanticization of cowboys and outlaws. 5. What prompted the establishment of national parks? Concerns about environmental destruction led to the creation of parks like Yellowstone. Conclusion The transformation of the Trans-Mississippi West was marked by the displacement of Native Americans, exploitation of natural resources, and establishment of new economic and cultural patterns. The legacy of this era continues to shape the American West today. 17-2 Resettling the West Focus Question What roles did the federal government, the army, and the railroads play in the resettlement of the West? Examines rapid settlement driven by federal policies, railroad expansion, and displacement of Native Americans. 17-2.1 The First Transcontinental Railroad ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 28 Pacific Railroad Act (1862): Authorized construction of the transcontinental railroad, linking East and West Coasts. Construction Challenges: Immense labor required, with Chinese immigrants playing a significant role. Completion and Impact: Revolutionized transportation, enabling faster movement of people, goods, and military forces. 17-2.2 Settlers and the Railroad Land Grants and Promotion: Railroads received over 170 million acres of land to attract settlers. Diverse Settlers: Facilitated migration of European immigrants, African American "Exodusters," and single women. Agricultural Influence: Encouraged specialization in cash crops, making farmers vulnerable to price fluctuations. 17-2.3 Homesteading on the Great Plains Homestead Act (1862): Offered 160 acres of land to settlers who improved it. Challenges of Farming: Insufficient land in the arid West, leading to additional acts like the Timber Culture Act (1873) and Desert Land Act (1877). Hardships of Frontier Life: Settlers faced isolation, harsh weather, and backbreaking labor. 17-2.4 New Farms, New Markets Technological Advances: Innovations like steel plows and barbed wire increased agricultural productivity. Economic Vulnerabilities: Farmers became dependent on railroads and volatile international markets. Environmental Challenges: Droughts and economic depressions made farming precarious. 17-2.5 Building a Society and Achieving Statehood ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 29 Community Development: Thriving communities with churches, schools, and cooperative networks. Statehood Process: Territories petitioned for statehood, with Kansas, Nevada, Nebraska, and Colorado among the first. Women’s Suffrage: Western states were pioneers in granting women voting rights. 17-2.6 The Spread of Mormonism Mormon Migration: Settled in the Great Salt Lake Valley to escape persecution. Conflict with the U.S. Government: Federal opposition due to polygamy and political influence. Adaptation and Statehood: Abandonment of polygamy led to Utah’s statehood in 1896. 17-2.7 Southwestern Lands Mexican-American Legacy: Annexation of territories after the MexicanAmerican War led to displacement and discrimination. Land Conflicts: Anglo settlers seized Mexican-owned lands, leading to tensions and violence. Cultural Adaptation: Mexican Americans adapted to Anglo society with varying degrees of success. Rising Racism: Anti-Mexican sentiment grew, with Anglos labeling Mexican Americans as lazy and violent. Key Events and Legislation Pacific Railroad Act (1862): Funded the construction of the transcontinental railroad. Homestead Act (1862): Offered 160 acres of land to settlers who improved it. Timber Culture Act (1873): Provided additional land to settlers who planted trees. ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 30 Desert Land Act (1877): Allowed settlers to purchase 640 acres of arid land. Edmunds-Tucker Act (1887): Targeted the Mormon Church by confiscating its property and banning polygamy. Conclusion The resettlement of the West was shaped by federal policies, railroad expansion, and the displacement of Native Americans and Mexican Americans. The legacy of this era continues to influence the cultural and economic landscape of the American West. 17-3 Exploiting the Western Landscape Focus Question How did mining, ranching, and farming shape the West? Explores the exploitation of natural resources and its impact on the region. 17-3.1 The Mining Frontier Gold and Silver Rushes: Sparked mining booms, beginning with the California Gold Rush in 1849. Life in Mining Towns: Characterized by a transient population, saloons, brothels, and high risk of violence and disease. Environmental Impact: Significant damage from hydraulic mining and smelters. Economic Impact: Contributed to the national economy but dominated by large corporations. 17-3.2 Cowboys and the Cattle Frontier Cattle Drives: Boomed in the 1860s and 1870s, driven by demand for beef in eastern markets. The Cowboy Myth: Romanticized as rugged, self-reliant figures, but reality was harsh. ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 31 Decline of the Open Range: Due to overgrazing, harsh winters, and expansion of railroads. 17-3.3 Cattle Towns and Prostitutes Cattle Towns: Hubs for the cattle industry with saloons, gambling halls, and brothels. Prostitution: Common feature, with women from diverse backgrounds facing significant risks. Women’s Roles: Took on roles as cooks, laundresses, and wives of merchants and ranchers. 17-3.4 Bonanza Farms Wheat Boom: Rise of large-scale wheat farming in the Dakotas in the 1870s and 1880s. Challenges of Agribusiness: Overproduction, fluctuating grain prices, and environmental factors led to collapse by the 1890s. California Agribusiness: Focused on specialty crops like citrus fruits and grapes. 17-3.5 The Oklahoma Land Rush, 1889 Opening of Indian Territory: Federal government opened nearly 2 million acres for settlement. Impact on Native Americans: Further displacement due to the Dawes Severalty Act (1887) and Curtis Act (1898). Legacy of the Land Rush: Symbolized the enduring appeal of the frontier myth but highlighted exploitation and challenges. Key Themes 1. Boom-and-Bust Economy: Mining, ranching, and farming brought wealth to some but left many struggling with debt and environmental degradation. ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 32 2. Environmental Impact: Significant damage to the western landscape from pollution, deforestation, and soil erosion. 3. Diversity of the West: Home to a diverse population, but racial and ethnic discrimination was widespread. 4. Role of Technology: Advances in technology played a crucial role in the development of the West but also contributed to environmental and economic challenges. Conclusion The exploitation of the western landscape through mining, ranching, and farming transformed the region, driving economic growth and attracting settlers. However, these industries also created a volatile economy, displaced Native Americans, and caused lasting environmental damage. 17-4 The West of Myth and Legend Focus Question How was the Wild West image of cowboys and Indians created, and what developments prompted the establishment of national parks? Explores the creation of the mythic "Wild West" and its impact on American culture, as well as the beginnings of the national parks movement. 17-4.1 The American Adam and the Dime-Novel Hero The Frontier as Escape: Popularized by writers like Mark Twain, portraying the West as a place of escape from civilization. Dime Novels and the Cowboy Hero: Created the image of the cowboy as a rugged, moral hero. Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show: Reinforced the idea of the West as a stage for moral conflict and adventure. 17-4.2 Revitalizing the Frontier Legend ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 33 Eastern Writers and Artists: Influenced by experiences in the West, portraying the frontier as a place that tested individual character. The Virginian: Owen Wister’s novel epitomized the idealized cowboy as a moral force. Criticism of the Myth: Ignored the darker realities of westward expansion. 17-4.3 Beginning a National Parks Movement Awe for the Western Landscape: Inspired by explorers like John Wesley Powell. Yellowstone National Park: Established in 1872 to preserve natural wonders. George Perkins Marsh and John Muir: Advocated for wilderness preservation, leading to the creation of Yosemite National Park and the Sierra Club. Legacy of Conservation: Reflected a growing awareness of the need to protect the environment. Key Themes 1. The Frontier Myth: Romanticized as a place of adventure, moral clarity, and individual freedom. 2. Cultural Impact: Shaped American identity and values through literature, art, and popular entertainment. 3. Conservation Movement: Inspired efforts to preserve natural wonders, leading to the establishment of national parks. 4. Contradictions of the Myth: Celebrated the West as a land of opportunity but overlooked exploitation and environmental damage. Conclusion The myth of the Wild West and the conservation movement reflect the complex legacy of westward expansion, influencing American culture and environmental policy. ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 34 Chapter Review The Whole Vision Examines the transformation of the Trans-Mississippi West between 1860 and 1900, focusing on displacement of Native Americans, federal policies, economic development, and the creation of the "Wild West" image. Key Questions and Answers 1. How was Indian life on the Great Plains transformed? Subdued by the U.S. Army, forced onto reservations, and assimilated through policies like the Dawes Act. 2. What roles did the federal government, the army, and the railroads play? Facilitated settlement and economic development, often at the expense of Native Americans and Mexican Americans. 3. How did mining, ranching, and farming shape the West? Drove economic growth but created instability, environmental degradation, and hardship. 4. How was the Wild West image created? Popularized through dime novels, Wild West shows, and writings of figures like Theodore Roosevelt and Owen Wister. 5. What prompted the establishment of national parks? Concerns about environmental destruction led to the creation of parks like Yellowstone and Yosemite. Key Themes 1. Displacement and Assimilation of Native Americans 2. Role of Government and Railroads 3. Boom-and-Bust Economy 4. The Frontier Myth 5. Conservation Movement ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 35 Conclusion The transformation of the Trans-Mississippi West was marked by the displacement of Native Americans, rapid settlement, and exploitation of natural resources. The legacy of this era continues to influence American identity and environmental policy. Chapter 18: The Rise of Industrial America, 1865–1900: In-Depth and Thorough Notes Chapter Introduction Industrial Transformation: Between 1865 and 1900, the U.S. underwent a dramatic industrial transformation, becoming one of the world’s leading economic powers. Key Drivers: Industrial growth was fueled by technological innovation, corporate consolidation, and the exploitation of natural resources. Impact: This period saw the rise of large corporations, the expansion of railroads, and the creation of a national market. However, it also brought social and environmental challenges, including labor unrest, urban poverty, and environmental degradation. 18-1 The Rise of Corporate America 18-1.1 The Character of Industrial Change Six Key Features of Industrialization: 1. Cheap Energy: Exploitation of coal deposits provided cheap energy for factories and railroads. 2. Technological Innovation: Advances in transportation, communication, and factory systems boosted productivity. 3. Demand for Labor: Industrialization created a demand for unskilled workers who could be easily controlled. ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 36 4. Intense Competition: Firms competed fiercely, leading to cost-cutting, monopolies, and the elimination of rivals. 5. Falling Prices: Increased productivity and competition led to a decline in prices. 6. Tight Money Supply: The money supply failed to keep pace with productivity, leading to high interest rates and restricted credit. Impact on Workers: Industrialization created wealth for some but left many workers living near subsistence levels. 18-1.2 Railroad Innovations Railroad Expansion: By 1900, 193,000 miles of railroad track connected the U.S., creating a national market. Management Innovations: Railroads pioneered hierarchical organizational structures, cost accounting, and standardized equipment. Time Zones: In 1883, railroads established four time zones to standardize schedules. Financial Challenges: Railroads relied heavily on government subsidies and borrowed heavily, leading to financial instability. 18-1.3 Consolidating the Railroad Industry Corporate Leaders: Figures like Collis P. Huntington and Jay Gould consolidated small railroads into large systems. Corruption: Many railroad executives engaged in stock manipulation and other corrupt practices. Regulation: The Interstate Commerce Act (1887) established the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to regulate railroads, but the ICC’s power was limited by court rulings. 18-1.4 Applying the Lessons of the Railroads to Steel ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 37 Andrew Carnegie: Carnegie revolutionized the steel industry by adopting the Bessemer process and implementing vertical integration. Cost Control: Carnegie focused on rigorous cost accounting and low wages to maximize profits. Philanthropy: Carnegie donated millions to libraries, universities, and peace causes. 18-1.5 The Trust: Creating New Forms of Corporate Organization John D. Rockefeller: Rockefeller used aggressive tactics to dominate the oil industry, creating the Standard Oil Trust in 1882. Trusts and Monopolies: Trusts allowed companies to control entire industries by consolidating competitors. Sherman Anti-Trust Act (1890): This law aimed to curb monopolies but was largely ineffective due to vague language and pro-business court rulings. 18-2 Stimulating Economic Growth 18-2.1 The Triumph of Technology Key Inventions: The telephone (Alexander Graham Bell), the light bulb (Thomas Edison), and the sewing machine transformed daily life. Edison’s Menlo Park: Edison’s laboratory became a model for industrial research and development. 18-2.2 Specialized Production Custom and Batch Production: Small manufacturers produced custom goods, while large corporations focused on mass production. Women’s Dressmaking: Skilled women entrepreneurs ran small dressmaking shops, adapting quickly to changing fashions. 18-2.3 Advertising and Marketing ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 38 Brand Names and Slogans: Companies used advertising to create consumer demand for mass-produced goods. Targeting Women: Advertisers sought to convert women from producers to consumers. 18-2.4 Social and Environmental Costs and Benefits Benefits: Industrialization brought labor-saving products, lower prices, and advances in transportation and communication. Costs: Workers faced low wages, dangerous conditions, and job insecurity. Industrial growth also caused environmental pollution. 18-3 The New South 18-3.1 Obstacles to Economic Development Lack of Capital: The South’s banking system was devastated by the Civil War, limiting investment. Poor Education: Underfunded schools hindered technological and managerial innovation. 18-3.2 The New South Creed and Southern Industrialization Henry Grady: Promoted the idea of a “New South” based on industrialization, but the region remained economically dependent on the North. Textile Mills: The South’s industrialization was largely confined to cotton mills, which paid low wages and operated in company towns. 18-3.3 The Southern Mill Economy Company Towns: Mill owners controlled workers’ lives, paying them in scrip and keeping them in debt. Racial Segregation: African Americans were largely excluded from industrial jobs. ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 39 18-3.4 The Southern Industrial Lag Northern Control: Northern capitalists controlled southern industries, keeping the region economically subordinate. Environmental Damage: Industrialization brought pollution and deforestation to the South. 18-4 Factories and the Workforce 18-4.1 From Workshop to Factory Deskilling of Labor: Factory work became repetitive and monotonous, reducing the need for skilled artisans. Impact on Workers: Workers lost control over their labor and faced harsh conditions. 18-4.2 The Hardships of Industrial Labor Dangerous Conditions: Workers faced long hours, low wages, and hazardous environments. Child Labor: Children as young as eight worked in coal mines and cotton mills. 18-4.3 Immigrant Labor Exploitation: Immigrants filled low-paying, dangerous jobs in industries like steel and textiles. Racial Discrimination: Immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe were often treated as nonwhite and paid lower wages. 18-4.4 Women and Work in Industrial America Women in Factories: Women entered the industrial workforce in large numbers, often working in textile mills or as clerical workers. Office Work: The typewriter and telephone created new opportunities for women in offices. ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 40 18-4.5 Hard Work and the Gospel of Success Horatio Alger: Promoted the myth of the “self-made man,” but most workers remained poor despite hard work. Upward Mobility: Some skilled workers improved their economic status, but unskilled laborers faced limited opportunities. 18-5 Labor Unions and Industrial Conflict 18-5.1 Organizing Workers National Labor Union (NLU): Founded in 1866, the NLU advocated for an eight-hour workday and other reforms but collapsed after its leader’s death. Knights of Labor: Founded in 1869, the Knights welcomed all workers, including women and African Americans, but declined after a series of failed strikes. American Federation of Labor (AFL): Founded in 1886, the AFL focused on skilled workers and practical goals like higher wages and shorter hours. 18-5.2 Strikes and Labor Unrest Great Railroad Strike (1877): A nationwide strike over wage cuts led to violent clashes and the intervention of federal troops. Haymarket Riot (1886): A labor protest in Chicago turned violent when a bomb was thrown, leading to a crackdown on labor activists. Homestead Strike (1892): A strike at Carnegie’s steel plant in Homestead, Pennsylvania, ended in a violent battle between workers and Pinkerton agents. Pullman Strike (1894): A strike against the Pullman Palace Car Company led to a nationwide railroad boycott and the intervention of federal troops. 18-5.3 Social Thinkers Probe for Alternatives Laissez-Faire: Defenders of capitalism, like Andrew Carnegie and William Graham Sumner, argued against government intervention in the economy. ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 41 Utopian Reformers: Figures like Henry George and Edward Bellamy proposed solutions to poverty and inequality, but their ideas gained limited traction. Marxism: Marxist ideas found little support in the U.S., but anarchists and socialists criticized the industrial system. Chapter Review Key Themes: 1. Rise of Big Business: The late 19th century saw the emergence of large corporations that dominated industries like steel, oil, and railroads. 2. Technological Advancements: Inventions like the telephone, light bulb, and electric power transformed daily life and fueled industrial growth. 3. Labor Struggles: Workers faced harsh conditions, low wages, and long hours. Labor unions emerged to fight for workers’ rights, but they were often met with violent opposition from employers and the government. 4. Regional Disparities: The South lagged behind the North in industrialization due to the Civil War’s devastation, a lack of capital, and racial segregation. 5. Environmental and Social Costs: Industrialization brought environmental degradation, including pollution and deforestation, as well as social problems like urban poverty and labor unrest. Conclusion: The rise of industrial America between 1865 and 1900 transformed the United States into a global economic powerhouse. Innovations in technology and business practices drove unprecedented growth, but this progress came at a cost. Workers faced harsh conditions, labor unions struggled against corporate power, and the South remained economically disadvantaged. The legacy of this era— marked by both remarkable achievements and significant social challenges— continues to shape the modern American economy and society. ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 42 Chapter 19: Immigration, Urbanization, and Everyday Life, 1860– 1900 Chapter Objectives 1. How did the influx of immigrants before 1900 create an awareness of ethnic and class differences? The massive influx of immigrants, particularly from southern and eastern Europe, led to heightened awareness of ethnic and class differences. Immigrants often lived in overcrowded, impoverished neighborhoods, which contrasted sharply with the affluent areas inhabited by native-born Americans. This disparity fueled class tensions and racial stereotyping, as native-born Americans often viewed immigrants as racially inferior and culturally alien. 2. How did Victorian morality shape middle-class society and culture? Victorian morality emphasized gentility, manners, decorum, and selfcontrol, which became defining characteristics of middle-class life. Middle- and upper-class women were expected to uphold the "cult of domesticity," creating a refined and morally upright home environment. This cultural framework also influenced education, architecture, and consumer behavior, reinforcing class distinctions. 3. How did social and religious reformers address urban poverty? Reformers like Jacob Riis and Jane Addams worked to improve living conditions in urban slums through initiatives such as settlement houses (e.g., Hull House). Religious movements like the Social Gospel emphasized the moral responsibility of the wealthy to help the poor. However, some reformers focused on assimilating immigrants into middle-class values, often disregarding their cultural traditions. 4. How did the urban working class change attitudes toward leisure and recreation by 1900? The working class embraced new forms of leisure and recreation, such as saloons, dance halls, vaudeville theaters, and amusement parks. Sports like baseball and boxing became popular forms of entertainment, ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 43 reflecting a shift from Victorian ideals of self-discipline to a more consumer-oriented, spectacle-driven culture. 5. How did writers, artists, and educational reformers address issues of cultural conflict? Writers like Mark Twain and Theodore Dreiser challenged the "genteel tradition" in literature, while architects like Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright redefined urban landscapes. Educational reformers sought to instill middle-class values in public schools, often clashing with immigrant cultures. Despite these efforts, working-class culture increasingly influenced broader American society. Key Themes and Topics 19-1: The New American City Urban Growth: Cities like New York, Chicago, and Philadelphia experienced explosive growth due to industrialization and immigration. By 1900, 40% of Americans lived in cities. Immigration: Between 1870 and 1900, nearly 11 million immigrants arrived, primarily from southern and eastern Europe. They settled in ethnic enclaves, creating vibrant but overcrowded neighborhoods. Class and Ethnic Tensions: Native-born Americans often viewed immigrants as culturally and racially inferior, leading to social stratification and discrimination. 19-2: Middle- and Upper-Class Society and Culture Victorian Morality: Middle-class values emphasized gentility, self-discipline, and moral uprightness. Women were expected to uphold the "cult of domesticity," creating a refined home environment. Department Stores: Stores like Macy's and Wanamaker's transformed shopping into a leisure activity, catering to middle- and upper-class women. Higher Education: The late 19th century saw the rise of research universities and the expansion of higher education, including the admission of women to ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 44 colleges. 19-3: Reforming the Working Class Battling Poverty: Reformers like Jacob Riis exposed the harsh conditions of urban slums, while settlement houses like Hull House provided social services and education to immigrants. Social Gospel: Religious reformers like Walter Rauschenbusch advocated for social justice and the moral responsibility of the wealthy to help the poor. Moral-Purity Campaigns: Reformers like Anthony Comstock sought to combat vice and immorality in cities, often targeting immigrant communities. 19-4: Working-Class Leisure in the Immigrant City Saloons and Dance Halls: Saloons served as social hubs for working-class men, while dance halls and amusement parks provided entertainment for women. Professional Sports: Baseball and boxing became popular forms of entertainment, with figures like John L. Sullivan becoming cultural icons. Vaudeville and Ragtime: Vaudeville theaters offered a mix of comedy, music, and drama, while ragtime music, pioneered by Scott Joplin, became a national sensation. 19-5: Cultures in Conflict The Genteel Tradition: Elite writers and editors like Charles Eliot Norton and E. L. Godkin promoted high culture and Victorian standards in literature and the arts. Modernism in Architecture and Painting: Architects like Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright rejected Victorian styles, while artists like Winslow Homer and Thomas Eakins depicted everyday life with realism. From Victorian Lady to New Woman: Women like Frances Willard and Charlotte Perkins Gilman challenged traditional gender roles, advocating for women's suffrage and economic independence. ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 45 Public Education: Public schools became arenas of cultural conflict, as middle-class reformers sought to impose their values on immigrant children. Key Events and Figures Homestead Act (1862): Encouraged westward expansion by offering land to settlers. Pacific Railroad Act (1862): Funded the construction of the transcontinental railroad, facilitating urbanization and economic growth. Jane Addams and Hull House: Established in 1889, Hull House provided social services to immigrants and became a model for the settlement-house movement. Mark Twain: Author of Huckleberry Finn (1884), Twain challenged Victorian literary conventions and explored themes of race and identity. John L. Sullivan: A heavyweight boxing champion who became a symbol of working-class masculinity and resilience. Scott Joplin: A pioneering ragtime composer whose music reflected the cultural vibrancy of African American communities. Conclusion The period from 1860 to 1900 was marked by dramatic social and cultural changes driven by immigration, urbanization, and industrialization. The influx of immigrants created ethnic and class tensions, while Victorian morality shaped middle-class values and aspirations. Reformers sought to address urban poverty and assimilate immigrants, but their efforts often clashed with the vibrant, working-class culture that emerged in cities. By the turn of the century, the United States was becoming an urban, consumer-oriented society, with new forms of leisure, entertainment, and cultural expression reshaping everyday life. ERA #6 (1877-1898): The Transformation of the U.S. from an Agricultural to an Industrialized and Urbanized Society 46