Where are English-language Speakers Distributed Lecture Notes

AP Human Geography Outline Ch. 5 Language Key Issue 1: Where are English-language speakers distributed? Language- a system of communication through speech, or other conventional methods, that groups of people understand to have the same meaning. Literary tradition- a system of written communication. Many languages lack a literary tradition, therefore impeding advancement and documentation. Official language- language designated for use by a country’s government. English is spoken by one-half a billion people across the globe. It is the official language of at least 42 countries; two billion people live in one of these countries. The widespread diffusion of English is thanks, in large part, to the colonial practices of the British. Through their colonization of the Earth, English was spread eventually to N. America, Ireland, S. Asia, S. Pacific, S. Africa, and numerous other remote locations. Little is known of the British Isles until the Celts arrived around 2000 B.C., speaking languages that we appropriately call, Celtic. Around 450 B.C. Germanic tribes, the Anglos, Saxons, and Jutes, invaded and pushed the Celts farther north and ruled “England” for several hundred years. Modern English would resemble German to a large degree had not the Normans invaded in 1066 A.D. These French ruled for nearly 300 years, and made their language the official language of the Isles. Once they were driven out, few people wished to speak the “enemy’s” language anymore, but the French influence on the language had already taken place. Today’s English can be seen as a hybrid of the original Germanic languages, with some Celtic and French mixed in. (along with varying degrees of influence from a large number of other languages.) Dialect- a regional variation of a language distinguished by a distinctive vocab, spelling, and pronunciation. English has the largest # of dialects b/c of its wide diffusion. Standard language- a dialect well-established and recognized for government use. British Received Pronunciation- the official dialect of English used by politicians, broadcasters, and actors in Great Britain. “My Fair Lady” was a musical in the 50’s that depicted social effects of dialect. 14 Differences between British and American English are: 1. Vocab- different mainly because settlers in America encountered new objects and experiences, many of which were assigned Native American names. 2. Grammar- distinctly different because Americans had a strong national feeling for an independent identity. The first American dictionary, published by Noah Webster was purposely altered from British spelling to differentiate the two languages. 3. Pronunciation- the most obvious reason for differences is that large expanse of water that seems to separate the U.S. from the U.K. The extreme physical separation caused the language to diverge into two very distinct dialects. Dialects within the States are numerous and varied due to the number of people in the U.S., the wide land area across which the language is spoken, the historical mobility of the American people as they ventured across the West, and the varied ethnicity of the English-speakers within this country. Three main dialects exist in England: -Northern -Midland -Southern These are used to classify many of the dialects within the U.S. Isogloss- the word-usage boundary that can be constructed for any word. Key Issue 2: Why is English related to other languages? Language family- a collection of languages related through a common ancestor that existed long before recorded history. -Language branch- a collection of languages within a family that are related through a common ancestor that existed several thousand years ago. --Language group- collection of languages within a branch that share a common origin in relatively recent history. Largest family is Indo-European, spoken by nearly 3 billion people. Below is an example of the break-down of a language family: INDO-EUROPEAN GERMANIC ALBANIAN -English, German, etc. ARMENIAN INDO-IRANIAN GREEK -Indic (eastern) Hindi, Urdu, etc. ARMENIAN -Iranian (western) Farsi, Kurdish, etc. ROMANCE *These 4 are used less -Med. Sea languages, French, Italian, etc. extensively than the others. BALTO-SLAVIC -Russian, Polish, Czech, etc. 15 Vulgar Latin- the Latin that people in the provinces learned; substandard. Evidence exists that a “superfamily” language once was used, known as Proto-IndoEuropean. However, little conclusive evidence has been found, and the issue is hotly debated among linguists. Most theories on the diffusion of language are conjecture and invalidated. Key Issue 3: Where are other language families distributed? The main language families of the world, other than Indo-European (spoken by 50% of world population) are: -Sino-Tibetan spoken by 20% of pop; in China and S.E. Asia -Afro-Asiatic spoken by 5% of pop; N. Africa and S.W. Asia and Mid East -Austronesian spoken by 5% of pop; S.E. Asia -Niger-Congo spoken by 5% of pop; sub-Saharan Africa -Dravidian spoken by 5% of pop; in India -Remaining 10% speak one of following: -Nilo-Saharan -Amerindian -Caucasian (Georgian) -Altaic -Uralic -Japanese -Korean -Ausro-Asiatic Key Issue 4: Why do people preserve local languages? Ideogram- “letters” that represent ideas or concepts, not specific pronunciations. Extinct language- language no longer spoken or used in daily activities by anyone in the world. Isolated language- a language unrelated to any other and not attached to any specific branch. Ex. Basque, spoken by over 1 million people in the Pyrenees Mts. of Spain. Icelandic, spoken by the Norwegians who originally emigrated to Iceland and remained isolated for several hundred years. Lingua franca- a universal language understood globally. Pidgin language- a simplified version of a lingua franca, used to communicate typically in areas where contact is just beginning. Ebonics- the dialect spoken by many blacks who migrated from the South to the large cities in the North who wished to preserve their distinctive accents. Franglais- the hybrid English-French language resulting from a combination of the two. Spanglish- similar to franglais, only a English-Spanish hybridization. The most obvious, and the main, reason for preserving a language is to preserve language diversity and to promote a self-identity. Many groups have revived their languages recently in order to help preserve an integral part of their culture. Examples include Hebrew and Celtic. 16 Ch. 6 Religion Key Issue 1: Where are religions distributed? There are 2 types of religions: Universalizingreligions that attempt to be global and appeal to all people. Ethnic- religion that primarily appeals to one group of people living in one place. More closely tied to the physical geography of a particular region, especially with agriculture. Branch- a large fundamental division within a religion. Denomination- a division of a branch that unites a number of local congregations in a single legal and administrative body. Sect- a relatively small group that has broken away from an established denomination. Pilgrimage- a sacred religious journey. The 3 main universalizing religions are: CHRISTIANITY- 2 billion followers in N. and S. America, Europe, Australia, and some Asian and African countries. 50% Roman Catholic, 25% Protestant, 10% Eastern Orthodox, and 15% miscellaneous. About 90% of the Western Hemisphere is Christian. 95% Roman Catholic in Latin American, 50% Protestant in the U.S. ISLAM- 1.3 billion followers in Middle East, Indonesia, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh. Core of beliefs is based on the 5 pillars of faith: 1. There is no god worthy of worship other than the one God, and Muhammad is the messenger of God. 2. A Muslim must pray 5 times daily facing the city of Mecca. 3. A Muslim gives generously to charity, as an act of purification and growth. 4. A Muslim fasts during the month of Ramadan, as an act of self-purification. 5. If physically and financially able, a Muslim makes a pilgrimage to Mecca. The branches of Islam are Sunni (83%) and Shiite (16%). BUDDHISM- 365 million followers in China and S.E. Asia mainly. Based on the 4 Noble Truths: 1. All living beings must endure suffering. 2. Suffering, which is caused by a desire to live, leads to reincarnation. 3. The goal of all existence is to escape from suffering and the endless cycle of reincarnation into Nirvana (a state of complete redemption), which is achieved through mental and moral self-purification. 4. Nirvana is attained through an Eightfold Path that stresses rightness of belief, resolve, speech, action, livelihood, effort, thought, and meditation. 17 The branches of Buddhism are Mahayana (56%), Theravada (38%), and Tantrayana (6%). The other two main universalizing religions other than the above three are: -Sikhism 24 million followers, 21 of which are clustered in the Punjab region of India. -Bahá’í 7 million followers dispersed across the globe. Some notable ethnic religions are: HINDU- the world’s 3rd largest religion with 820 million adherents. 97% live in India CONFUCIANISM- mainly in China, stresses ethical lifestyles TAOISM- mainly in China also, followers seek the dao (tao) meaning the way or path. SHINTO- mainly in Japan, before WWII was the state religion and emperor was regarded as divine. JUDAISM- 6 million followers in U.S., 4 million in Israel, 2 million in Russia, 2 million elsewhere. First religion to support monotheism- the belief in only 1 god, as opposed to polytheism- the belief in many gods. ANIMISM- traditional African religions that focus on the animate qualities of normally considered inanimate objects, like stones, water, etc. Animism is a sort of allencompassing term rather than a specific religion. I will now shamelessly plug my own work and say that for more info on African religions, ask Mr. King to see the truly fabulous one-of-a-kind presentation that a certain student of his has prepared. Key Issue 2: Why do religions have different distributions? As a general rule, universalizing religions have origins based on a specific individual’s life in the past, ethnic religions typically have either no origin or an unclear one at best. Some religious origins: Christianity- based on the life of Jesus Islam-trace lineage back through Abraham’s other son Ishmael; based on the life of Muhammad, the Prophet of Islam. Buddhism- based on the life of Siddhartha Gautama, who later became Buddha (the enlightened one) Sikhism- founded by Guru Nanak about 500 years ago. Hindu- did not originate with a specific founder. Beginnings of Hindu date back to before recorded history. Missionaries- individuals who help to transmit a universalizing religion through relocation diffusion. Pagan- followers of polytheistic religions in ancient times. Ghetto- city slum designated for Jew habitation. Cosmogony- creation story. Solstice- day when sun is at highest or lowest point in the sky. Diffusion of Religions Christianity spread mainly through the work of missionaries, and also by some conquest and colonization. 18 Islam spread mainly through conquest. Buddhism spread mainly through missionaries and trade merchants. Ethnic religions rarely diffuse, and when they do, it is to a small extent. Thus, the universalizing religions diffuse mainly at the expense of the smaller ethnic religions, and often a semi-hybrid religion will result with concepts from both the ethnic religion and the universalizing religion intertwined. Judaism is an exception in that it has diffused widely throughout the years, mainly because its people have had to flee persecution from many areas in the world. Buddhism and Islam are the universalizing religions that place the most emphasis on identifying shrines/holy places. In universalizing religions, the holy places are generally locations at which memorable events happened in the founder’s life, such as Mecca is in Islam because it is Muhammad’s birthplace. Holy places in ethnic religions are often physical features that are closely tied to the religion. For example, in Hindu one of the most important rituals is the bathing of oneself in the Ganges River. Cosmogony and calendars also differ betwixt universalizing religions and ethnic religions. Ethnic religious creation stories tend to deal with the physical environment and natural events, whereas universalizing religion stories often attempt to explain the mystical. Ethnic religions typically organize their calendars around the seasons, other natural events, or the physical geography. Universalizing religions’ main purpose in calendars is to commemorate events in the founder’s life, thus the seasons or weather are not central to the structure. Key Issue 3: Why do religions organize space in distinctive patterns? The distribution of religious elements on the landscape reflects the importance of religion in people’s values. In Christianity, the landscape is dominated by a high density of churches. They are critical because of the emphasis placed on regularly attending worship. In Islam, mosques are the places for general assembly. They are not viewed as a sanctified place but rather a convening point for the community. A mosque normally has a central courtyard surrounded by classrooms. In Hinduism, temples are built within the home or individual community. They have a central room to house a spirit, with rooms for rituals, and outer purifying pools. In both Buddhism and Shinto, pagodas are the common architecture. They are typically built to enshrine sacred religious artifacts. In Bahá’í, the church officials decided to open seven Houses of Worship on multiple continents to stress the universality of their religion. The disposing of the dead differs from religion to religion. Some prefer to bury while others choose to cremate. Religion often influences the place-names of certain regions. Ex. The vast amount of places named for saints in predominantly Roman Catholic Quebec. 19 Hierarchical religion- well-defined geographic structure with a high degree of organization. Ex. The Roman Catholic Church Diocese- the basic geographic unit of the R.C.C. Autonomous religions- self-sufficient religions with little organization. Ex. Islam prefers to unify by faith rather than specific boundaries. Most ethnic religions are autonomous. Protestant faiths vary. Key Issue 4: Why do territorial conflicts arise among religious groups? RELIGION IS ARGUABLY THE MOST VOLITALE OF ALL HUMAN RELATIONS AND THE SOURCE OF MOST VIOLENCE THROUGHOUT HISTORY. Fundamentalism- the literal interpretation and strict intense adherence to one’s religious principles. Fundamentalists try to return society to its religious ways. The most obvious example is the Taliban in Afghanistan. Caste- the class or distinct hereditary order into which a Hindu was assigned according to religious law. Religion is nearly always suppressed in communist countries. Leaders believe that religion has a tendency to upset stability and therefore ban it altogether, though often they just concrete the people’s religious adherence instead of destroying it. Other times, when people of different religions live in close proximity to one another, engage in contact often, or share interests in a particular location, especially violent interaction will occur. Ex. The Middle East. Jews, Christians, and Muslims have fought for over 2,000 years to control the same small strip of land in the East Mediterranean. Historically the Crusades between Christians and Muslims played out as each fought to control the Holy Lands. Hostilities continue in the modern era over these same lands. Attempting to summate the issue in a few sentences would not be sufficient, see pgs. 213-220. The controversy in Ireland occurred when predominantly Catholic South Ireland wished to secede from predominantly Protestant Great Britain. However, the northernmost six counties of Ireland are overwhelmingly Protestant and wished to remain part of the U.K. When the split occurred a small number of Roman Catholics in both N. Ireland and the Republic of Ireland joined the Irish Republican Army (IRA), a militant organization devoted to achieving Irish unity by whatever means necessary. A Protestant organization has formed in return. Violence continues as extremists from both sides disrupt the lives of peaceful civilians. 20 Ch. 7 Ethnicity Key Issue 1: Where are ethnicities distributed? Ethnicity- the identity of a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearth. Race- the identity of a group of people who share a biological ancestor. The most common ethnicities within the U.S. are African Americans and Hispanics/Latinos, about 13% each. Others include Asian American (4%) and American Indian (1%). The fourteen races w/in the U.S., as decided by the Census, are: white, black-African American-Negro, American Indian-Alaska Native, Asian Indian, Chinese, Filipino, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, Native Hawaiian, Guamanian-Chamorro, Samoan, other Pacific islander, and lastly, other race. Within a country, clustering of ethnicities may occur on a regional scale, or within particular neighborhoods of cities. Regional: -In the U.S., African Americans are clustered in the S.E., Hispanics in the S.W., Asians in the West, and Native Americans in the S.W. and Great Plains. Within cities: -African Americans are highly clustered within cities, greater than 50% of blacks live within cities. Ex- In Detroit, A-A comprise 80% of the pop, but only one-fourteenth the pop of the rest of Michigan. The distribution of Hispanics in northern cities is similar to that of African Americans, for instance NYC is ¼ Hispanic, but only 1/16th the rest of New York. -The clustering of ethnicities is especially visible on the neighborhood level. Such as in Chicago where many of the immigrants from S. and E. Europe tended to chain migrate to specific city blocks in such density that certain areas of town became known for a specific ethnicity. More recently, however, descendants of European immigrants are more likely to retain their ethnic identity through religion, food, and other cultural traditions rather than through location of residence. Increasingly the ethnic concentrations in the U.S. are African Americans from the South, Hispanics, or Asians. The current clustering of African Americans w/in the U.S. results from three major migration flows: 1. Immigration from Africa in the 18th century (slave trade) 2. Immigration from the South to northern cities during first ½ of 20th century. 3. Immigration from inner-city ghettos to other urban neighborhoods in the second ½ of the 20th century. Triangular slave trade- an efficient triangular trading pattern used to transport trinkets from Europe to Africa, slaves from Africa to the Caribbean, and molasses from the Caribbean to Europe. An optional stop was from the Caribbean with molasses to the U.S. to exchange for rum and then back to Europe. 21 Sharecropper- an individual who works fields rented from a landowner and pays the rent by turning over to the landowner a share of the crops. Racism- the belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority of a particular race. Racist- a person who subscribes to the beliefs of racism. “White flight” is the rapid fleeing of whites from the cities as black families emigrate out of the ghettos, or as the ghetto expands. It was encouraged by blockbusting. blockbusting- the real estate practice of scaring whites into selling their homes at low prices by telling them that blacks would soon be moving in and causing property values to fall. The real estate agents then turned around and sold the homes at extremely high prices to blacks that were emigrating from the inner city. Apartheid- the physical separation of different races into different geographic areas, i.e. South Africa. The apartheid laws were repealed in 1991 in South Africa, but many years will be needed to erase the legacy of such racist policies. Key Issue 2: Why have ethnicities been transformed into nationalities? Nationality- the identity of a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular country. Self-determination- the concept that ethnicities have the right to govern themselves. Nation-state- a state whose territory corresponds to that occupied by a particular ethnicity that has been transformed into a nationality. Denmark is an excellent example. Ethnic groups have been transformed into nationalities because desire for selfrule is a very important shared attitude for many of them. Nationalism- loyalty and devotion to a nationality. Centripetal force- an attitude that tends to unify people and enhance support for a state. Multi-ethnic state- a state that contains more than one ethnicity. Multinational states- multi-ethnic states that contain two ethnic groups with traditions of self-rule that agree to coexist peacefully. The United Kingdom is an example. The Soviet Union was the largest multinational state until is fall in the early 1990s; it consisted of 15 different republics based on its largest ethnicities. Now Russia is the largest multinational state, with 39 nationalities. After the fall of the Soviet Union, many new countries in the Baltic, E. Europe, and Middle East were created, sometimes corresponding to nationalities, sometimes not. An example of turmoil resulting from poorly drawn boundaries is in the Caucasus region, betwixt the Black and Caspian seas. Many ethnicities exist here, with several pushing for nationality. Many Europeans believed at the beginning of the 20th century that ethnicities were a thing of the past, however, they were quite incorrect. After the fall of communism in many states, ethnicities that had long been suppressed were allowed to expand and flourish. This is especially evident in the former Yugoslavia, which was utterly decimated as minority ethnicities exerted themselves and demanded independence. 22 Key Issue 3: Why do ethnicities clash? Often the cause of violence is when different ethnicities compete to rule the same region or nationality. Especially common in sub-Saharan Africa, where the superimposed boundaries of the Europeans colonies poorly coincide with the thousands of ethnicities. The Horn of Africa has been the site of many ethnic disturbances: Ethiopia and Eritrea, Sudan, Somalia, etc. The other main source of ethnic violence occurs when ethnicities are divided among more than one state. Such as in S. Asia where the British divided their former colony into Pakistan and India. (East Pakistan became Bangladesh after 1971) As a result of the partition, millions of Hindus had to migrate from the Pakistans, and Muslims had to migrate from India. During the course of the migrations, many adherents were killed by members of the opposite religion. Also, controversy continues in the northern area of Kashmir over the proper border. Similar unrest is present on the island of Sri Lanka, betwixt the Tamil Hindus and the Sinhalese Buddhists. Key Issue 4: What is ethnic cleansing? Ethnic cleansing- the process in which a more powerful ethnic group forcible removes a less powerful one in order to create an ethnically homogeneous region. Probably the best example is WWII in which millions of Jews, gypsies, and other ethnicities were forcibly moved to concentration camps, where most were exterminated. When Yugoslavia was one country, encompassing multiple ethnicities, dissent was kept under control. However, once Yugoslavia broke up into six republics, the boundaries did not align with the boundaries of the five largest nationalities, and ethnicities fought to redefine the boundaries. In some cases, as in Bosnia and Kosovo, ethnic cleansing was used to strengthen certain nationalities’ cases for autonomy. As a result, millions of ethnicities were forcibly removed from their homes, and marched elsewhere, or simply killed. Similar ethnic cleansing occurs in Central Africa betwixt the Hutus and Tutsis. Balkanized- used to describe a small geographic area that could not successfully be organized onto one or more stable states because it was inhabited by many ethnicities with complex, long-standing antagonisms toward each other. Balkanization- the process by which a state breaks down due to conflicts among its ethnicities. 23 Ch. 8 Political Geography Key Issue 1: Where are states located? State- an area organized into a political unit and ruled by a sovereign government. It occupies a defined area on Earth’s surface and has a permanent population. Sovereignty- a state’s independence of internal affairs from other states. Antarctica is the only large landmass that officially belongs to no state, as part of the Treaties of Antarctica 1959 and 1991. Several countries claim portions of the continent, but the U.S., Russia, and numerous other states refuse to recognize these claims. Korea was originally a colony of Japan, but was divided into two occupation zones along the 38th parallel by the U.S. and former Soviet Union after Japan’s defeat in WWII. The division became permanent in the 1940s when the zones were turned into autonomous states. North Korea became the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, and South Korea became the Republic of Korea. In 1950, N. Korea invaded the South, sparking a three-year conflict that ended with a ceasefire line near the 38th parallel. Both governments are committed to reuniting the country; however, attempts at reconciliation were halted when N. Korea decided to build nuclear weapons while its people starved. Chinese Nationalists who fled the country after communist takeover, established control over the island of Taiwan. The Nationalists claim that they still are the legitimate rulers of China, but for the time being will rule Taiwan. The communists claim control over Taiwan, but most other world states believe the two are separate and sovereign states. After ruling power was shifted in 1971 from the Nationalists to the communists, Taiwan became the most populous state not in the United Nations. A similar problem of defining a state is seen in Africa, where the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (Western Sahara) is considered by most to be a sovereign state but Morocco claims the territory and built a 3,000 km wall around it to keep out rebel forces. A cease-fire signed in 1991 is supervised by U.N. peacekeeping forces. Spain controls two cities in Morocco. Microstates- states with very small land areas. The smallest U.N. state is Monaco (.6 square miles) Development of the state concept City-state- a sovereign state that comprises a town and the surrounding countryside. These were the first states to develop in ancient times. Reached highest point in the Roman Empire. Early European states evolved after the fall of the Roman Empire as powerful nobles emerged and began consolidating surrounding estates into kingdoms. This 24 method formed the basis for the development of states like England, France, Spain, etc. Colonialism- the effort by one country to establish settlements and to impose its political, economic, and cultural agenda on an uninhabited territory. The three reasons for colonialism are: 1. European missionaries establishing colonies to promote Christianity. 2. Governments establishing colonies to access raw materials and resources. 3. Governments establishing colonies to increase prestige of that country. These 3 reasons are often summated as “God, gold, and glory.” Colony- a territory that is legally tied to a sovereign state rather than being completely independent. Imperialism- establishing control of a territory already occupied and organized by an indigenous society. After colonization ended, many former colonies established their independence from the mother country. Thus, very few colonies exist in the modern world, nearly all of which are small islands in the S. Pacific or Caribbean. Pitcairn Island is the world’s smallest colony, with 54 residents on an island less than 2 square miles. It was originally settled in 1790 by the crew of the British vessel Bounty. The islanders survive by selling fish and postage stamps to collectors. Key Issue 2: Why do boundaries cause problems? Boundary- an invisible line marking the extent of a state’s territory. There are two types of boundaries: -PHYSICAL BOUNDARIES -Mountains are effective if they are difficult to cross. -Deserts are effective if hard to cross and sparsely settled. -Water boundaries can be effective for defense because an assailant’s troops must establish a beachhead in order to attack. Rivers pose problems because they tend to move across the Earth’s surface as a result of erosion. Oceans are the cause of some controversy because of arguments about how far a state’s boundary protrudes into the water. The Law of the Sea, signed by 117 countries in 1983, established the territorial limits for most countries at 12 nautical miles, and fishing rights at 200 miles -CULTURAL BOUNDARIES -Geometric boundaries are simply mathematical lines drawn on a map. -Religious boundaries are rarely used, b/c they normally coincide with state boundaries. -Language boundaries are especially numerous in Europe. -Implemented boundaries are those established by the ruling organization. Ex. The “Green Line” boundary in Cyprus. (p.277-78) -Relic boundaries are nonfunctional partitions that still exist. Ex. The Great Wall of China. 25 There are 5 shapes of states: -Compact states- the distance from the center to any boundary varies little. Generally found in smaller states. -Prorupted states- an otherwise compact state with a large projecting extension. Ex. Congo -Elongated states- have a long and narrow shape. Ex. Chile -Fragmented states- have several discontinuous pieces of territory. Ex. U.S.A. -Perforated states- completely surround another state. Ex. South Africa Landlocked state- a state that lacks a direct outlet to the ocean. Especially common in Africa. Frontier- a zone where no state exercises complete political control. Unitary state- a state that places most of the power in the hands of a central govt. Federal state- a state that allocates strong power to units of local govt. w/in the country. The trend in recent years has been more states moving from their unitary stance to a more federal government. Gerrymandering- the process of redrawing legislative boundaries for the purpose of benefiting the party in power. “Packing” places many voters of one type into a single area, whereas “stacking” arranges the voters to win a majority of the seats. Key Issue 3: Why do states cooperate with each other? Balance of power- a condition of equal strength betwixt opposing alliances. States cooperate for political and military reasons. The most important supranational organization is the United Nations. Established in 1945, it contained 49 members. As of 2003, 190 countries were part of the U.N. Though the power of the U.N. is somewhat limited, it is still a substantial step in the direction toward global peace. The U.N. nations can elect to create peacekeeping forces, and can request the military assistance from other states. Other significant military organizations are: -Organization of American States (OAS) all 35 W. Hemisphere states -Organization for African Unity (OAU) all African states -Commonwealth of Nations the U.K. and 53 former colonies. States also cooperate for economic purposes. The best example is the European Union. The EU main goal is to promote development within the member states through economic cooperation. Farmers subsidies, and the introduction of the common currency the EURO, are some of the methods through which the EU has developed W. Europe into the most viable market on Earth. Germany dominates the EU. Stringent guidelines prevent many Baltic states from being admitted, thus preserving the economic benefits reaped by the 15 older members. 26 Key Issue 4: Why has terrorism increased? Terrorism is the systematic use of violence by a group in order to intimidate a population or coerce a government into granting its demands. The increasing level of radical fundamentalism in many religions and the creation of the terrorist network al-Qaeda have led to an increase in the number of terrorist attacks worldwide. Al-Qaeda is a network founded by Osama bin Laden who used his several million dollar inheritance from his billionaire father to fund the program. Al-Qaeda (an Arabic word meaning “the base”) was formed in 1990 to unite jihad fighters from around the world in an organized offensive against the United States, whom bin Laden sees as the “Great Satan” because of U.S. support for the royal family of Saudi Arabia and for supporting the Jewish state of Israel. Al-Qaeda’s holy war against the U.S. reached its apex on Sept. 11, 2001. Another reason for increased terrorist activity is the increased amount of state support for terrorism, defined as: 1. Providing sanctuary for terrorists wanted by other countries. Ex. The Taliban govt. of Afghanistan harboring al-Qaeda fugitives. 2. Supplying weapons, money, and/or intelligence to terrorists. Ex. Libyan Colonel Muammar al-Qaddafi provided terrorists with money to kill his opponents living in exile. 3. Planning attacks using terrorists. Ex. The Libyan govt. hiring terrorists to bomb a Berlin nightclub frequented by U.S. soldiers. The U.S. invaded Afghanistan to hunt down members of al-Qaeda. The Taliban govt. was also overthrown for its support of al-Qaeda. The U.S. then invaded Iraq in order to investigate reports that Iraq had been develop weapons of mass destruction. Little conclusive evidence has been recovered to justify that Iraq had WMDs or was in the process of developing them. Other states considered by the U.S. to be state sponsors of terrorism are: -Yemen -Sudan -Syria -N. Korea -Iran 27 C