Modern Middle East Quiz #1 Review Terms

● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Short Questions/I.D.s (5/15+): Abdulhamid II ○ Reigned as the last (34th) Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, he ascended to the throne after his brother, Murad, in 1876, and ruled for over thirty years as a dictator. Many Ottomans felt his was a cruel leader who was corrupt and devoted to pan-Islam, and believed that the only way forward for the country was to restore the 1876 constitution and overthrow him. Opposition groups like the Young Turks/CUP rose during his dictatorship, forcing him to restore the constitution in 1908 and he was deposed. Ahmad Urabi ○ Egyptian army officer who was crucial in the ‘Urabi revolt (1879-82) a nationalist uprising that wanted to depose the Khedive Tewfik Pasha and bring an end to British and French influence over the country. The uprising was ended with the Anglo-Egyptian War and eventual takeover of Egypt, with concerns of the Suez Canal’s use for British interests. Urabi was exiled after standing trial and didn’t return until 1901 Allenby ○ Edmund Allenby was the Commander of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force in WWI, the conqueror of Palestine, and later served (1919-25) as the high commissioner for Egypt and Sudan. He is also known for the capture of Jerusalem (1917) and his proclamation of martial law there, he entered the Holy City through the Jaffa Gate as a sign of respect that was seen as a sign of his modesty by those in Jerusalem. Arab League ○ A loose alliance founded in 1945 that has pledged to work together on economic and military issues. The league, composed of 22 members, makes decisions on a majority basis, but there is no stick for making sure member’s comply with their resolutions. Arab Nationalism ○ A nationalist idea that advocates for the greater community of Arabs to come together. This movement alongside seeking unification wants independence from non-Arab control. Which today looks different than it did a hundred years ago with continued monetary aid from outside powers and proxy wars in the region. Armenian Genocide ○ Refers to the physical annihilation of Armenian Christians in the Ottoman Empire from 1915-16. There were approximately 1.5 million Armenians living in the Ottoman Empire initially, at least 664,000 and possibly as many as 1.2 million died during the genocide. The term “genocide” in my opinion clearly belongs, but still causes much contention and debate in Turkey today. Arab Revolt ○ “British-backed rebellion of Arabs, mainly in the Hijaz, against Ottoman rule (1916-18)” Ba’ath Party ○ An Arab nationalist and socialist party that has been ruling in Syria since the 1960s and in Iraq from 1968-2003. The party has remained in power through Hafiz al-Assad (1970-2000) and his son Bashar, currently serving as Syria’s president since 2000. The party combines Arab nationalism and socialism while arguing against foreign imperialism and the potential unification of the Arab world into a single state. Balfour Declaration ○ Written by Brit Arthur Balfour, the declaration published in 1917 voiced the British support (siding with Zionists) for “the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people". The declaration can be viewed as illegitimate given that Palestine was still a part of the ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Ottoman Empire at the time, the declaration would later be called by some as the start of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Bashar al-Assad ○ The current president of Syria since 2000 when he took power following his father, and still upholds the values of the Ba’ath Party. Throughout his leadership, human rights concerns and violations have been at the forefront and an inquiry from the UN in 2017 found him guilty of war crimes, specifically citing the chemical attacks in Khan Shaykhun, al-Assad still remains on the war criminal list and continues to criticize the American-led intervention in Syria that aimed for a regime change. Cairo Declaration on Human Rights ○ Drafted by the majority of OIC (Organization of the Islamic Conference) members in 1990, in part it was a response to UDHR and other international human rights initiatives. The declaration was also based from Sharia Law applied in the terms of modern human rights initiatives to relate them to the fundamental principles of Islam. Caliphate ○ “Political institution led by the caliph” Damascus Affair/Blood libel (Powerpoint notes on Zionism) ○ Devshirme ○ “Ottoman system of of taking Christian boys, converting them to Islam, and training them for military or administrative service” Egyptian Revolution ○ Fall of the Ottoman Empire ○ Gamal Abdel Nasser ○ An Egyptian military officer who would serve as Prime Minister and later President (1956-70). He was a controversial leader in the Arab world, he established the United Arab Republic (1958-61) and would fight two wars with Israel, and interfere in the Jordanian Civil War. He also nationalized the Suez Canal and was in office during the Suez affair. Greek Orthodox ○ This term relates to the branch of Christianity that acknowledges the authority of the Constantinople patriarch and denies the Christian doctrines created in Nicea (325) and Chalcedon (451). Unlike the Catholic Church, they have no single/authoritative bishops and are governed by the Holy Synod. The Greek Orthodox church is also noteworthy for its use of the Divine Liturgy. With regards to the Arab world, some Greek Orthox reside in larger numbers in Syria, Israel, Palestine, Turkey, Iraq, Egypt, Lebanon, etc., and practice in Arabic while upholding Byzantine Greek traditions. Hanafi School ○ Hadith ○ “A statement, documented by a chain or reliable witness, concering a saying or action of Muhammad, or an action by one of his companions that he approved; hence an authoritative source of the Shari’a” Hashemite Revolt ○ Husayn Ibn Ali (Sherif of Mecca) ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ○ Jihad ○ Jihad is an arabic phrase which can be translated to struggle. The Quaran describes three different forms of Jihad: against yourself, against Satan (great jihads), and jihad against enemies (lesser jihad). Essentially, it refers to the Muslim stuggle to uphold what is “good” and work against what is “evil”. The Quran, when detailing moves against the pagan Meccans implied a verbal discourse against those who reject the message of Islam. Later in In the Medinan period (622–632), Muhammad had revelations of jihad that was of fighting in oneself. Hadiths elaborate that jihad can be expressed in four ways, through the tongue, heart, hand, and sword. Khedive Ismail of Egypt ○ Khedive of Egypt prior to British occupation serving from 1863-79, removed with British takeover. Ismail developed Egypt and Sudan during his reign with a focus on investment in development and urbanization and with expansion further into the African continent. Ismail's policies and spending would later lead to severe debt which would lead to the sale of Egypt’s Suez Canal shares to the British. Kurds ○ “Member of linguistic-cultural group concentrated in southeastern Turkey, northern Iraq, northwestern Iran, and parts of Syria” Mamluks ○ “(1) Turksih or Circassian slave soldier, (2) member of a military oligarchy ruling Egypt and Syria and dominant in some areas up to the nineteenth century” Mehmet Ali (Muhammad Ali) ○ “Albanian adventurer who took control of Egypt and instituted many westernizing reforms (18051849) Mehmet II Fatih ○ “Ottoman Sultan (1451-1481), conqueror of Constantinople” Mustafa Kemal (Ataturk) ○ An army officer who founded the independent republic of Turkey from the reminnents of the Ottoman Empire in 1923. He served as Turkey’s president until his death in 1938. Ataturk was known for his westernizing reforms that quickly secularized and progressed the state. His tenure also led to a shift away from Islam in public life to that of European laws, the position of Sultan was abolished and European dress codes were mandated. Nasirism ○ “Western term for Nasir’s political philosophy and program, including nationalism, neutralism, and Arab socialism” Palestine Mandate ○ A League of Nations mandate (1920-48) that formalized British rule over the territories in Palestine and Transjordan, conceded territories by the Ottoman Empire following WWI. The legality of the mandate has been thoroughly debated, where the sovereignty of Palestine and Transjordan were not considered, only viewed as states to be passed between larger “European” powers. Pan-Arab, Pan-Islam, Pan-Turkism ○ Pillars of Islam ○ The five pillars of Islam are: faith (shahada), prayer (salat), alms (zakat), fasting (sawm), and pilgrimage (hajj). These pillars are known arkan as and all of theumma of Islam are expected to adhere. They are fundamental to the Islamic religion. ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Qajars ○ Were the ruling family of Persia (1794-1925) with Turkic origin. The ruling seized control of Iran iby deposing Lotf 'Ali Khan, the last Shah of the Zand dynasty and re-asserted military presence and sovereignty over the Caucasus Mountains. The Qajar dynasty was overthrown with the 1921 Persian Coup, which was relatively non-violent, and would see a change of leadership to the Pahlavi dynasty with Zia'eddin Tabatabaee becoming prime minister. Reza Shah ○ Reza Pahlavi served as Iran’s Shah from (with a coup) 1878-1944. He was the first monarch of the Pahlavi dynasty, and is credited with greatly modernizing the nation, including the construction of the Trans-Iranian Railway, the introduction of modern education, and the establishment of the University of Tehran. Reza Shah during WWI declared Iran neutral in the conflict, fears from the allies/US that he would align his oil sales to Nazi Germany led to his deposal and exilation, being replaced by his son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. Saddam Hussein ○ Also known as the "The Butcher of Baghdad", Hussein was the dictator of Iraq from 1979-2003, he was a staunch adversary for the US during the Persian Gulf War and established a secret police force that suppressed internal dissenters, his goal was to become the ultimate leader of the Arab world, including oil fields in the Persian Gulf. Saddam led Iraq in a war against Iran from 1980 to 1988 which ended in a stalemate and during this conflict used chemical weapons against Kurds, killing at least 5,000 in March 1988 which he would later stand trial and be executed for (2006). In 1990, he ordered the invasion of Kuwait. Safavids ○ The Safavid Dynasty ruled from 1501-1736 and ruled modern day Iran. The Safavids established Twelver Shiism as their official religion, which distinguished them from the Ottomans and Moguals, two Sunni adhering populations. Ultimately, the dynasty fell to outside invasion, peaking in 1722 when Afghan forces besieged the capital of Isfahan. Sharia Law ○ The Sharia (meaning clear path) is the code of approved Muslim behavior based on the Quaran and the Sunnah. The law guides Muslims to participate in the five pillars of Islam and practice fasting, prayers, and donations. It guides Muslims’ existence in the world based on how they should live to Allah’s wishes. Sharia law divides punishments into two categories: “hadd offences”, with strict punishments like stoning or amputation of a hand for offences like adultery or homosexuality, and "tazir" crimes, where the punishment is left to the discretion of the judge. Shia vs Sunni ○ Refers to the split in Islam, occuring when Muhammad’s successor could not be agreed upon. The Sunni’s believe Abu Bakr should succeed. In 611, the Shia Ali is assassinated and in 680 his son Hussien marches against the army of the caliph at Karbala in Iraq and is beheaded, cementing the sects of Shia and Sunni Islam. Today, Sunni Muslims are the majority with Iraq the prominent Shia state. A main difference is the Sunni reliance on the Sunnah and the Shia’s lend to their Ayatollahs. Suez Canal ○ Geographically the constructed channel between the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea finished in 1869. The Suez Affair (1956) refers to the Israeli armed push toward the Suez Canal after Egyptian President Nasser nationalized the canal, an incredibly valuable channel for oil transport. Israel was then joined by the British and France. Egypt kept their stronghold and forced the British, French and Israeli governments to withdraw troops from 1956-7. The US (Eisenhower) intervened at its height due to a fear of Solviet aggression. ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Sykes Picot ○ Was a secret pact signed by Britain, France, and Russia during WWI (1916) outlining their true intentions to divide the Ottoman Empire amongst themselves, publicly lying to their Arab alliances/promises to the Hashemites (Jordan) and Syria. The agreement led to the creation of the modern borders for Iraq, Israel and the Palestinian territories, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria. The borders were poorly drawn without much Arab insight, splitting populations of Kurds and the Druze, making them minorities in other states. In short, the contradicted promises made by Britain to France, the Arabs, and the Zionist movement. T.E. Lawrence ○ Also known as Lawrence of Arabia, he was a British (Welsh) intelligence officer who played a role in the fall of the Ottoman Empire during WWI. In 1916, he was sent to join the Great Arab Revolt where he used guerilla tactics to hit at the Turkish lines of communication while avoiding direct confrontation. In 1917, Lawrence helped attack Aqaba, a Turkish fort with an important port. Tanzimat ○ Refers to a program of intensive westernizing reforms put in place by the Ottoman government from 1839 to 1876, under the rule of the sultans Abdülmecid I and Abdülaziz. The reforms called for an establishment of new institutions to guarantee security of life, property, and honour to all subjects of the empire regardless of their religion or race, and additionally set up a taxation system to limit abuse and corruption. The reform movement halted in the 1870s but were successful to lay the path for gradual westernization in the Ottoman Empire. The Eisenhower Doctrine ○ Announced in 1957, the Eisenhower Doctrine allowed a country to request US monetary and military aid if it was being threatened by an armed aggression from another state. Eisenhower called out the movements of the Solviet Union with this doctrine and was in part motivated from a growing hostility towards the US in Arabs. Eisenhower was also concerned with the power vacuum that was growing in the Middle East after Britain and France “left” the region, again fearing the USSR would fill the gaps if the US didn’t. Eisenhower never directly invoked the Eisenhower Doctrine, but did provide military aid to Lebanon in 1958 with attacks from domestic Lebanese political rivals. The first Intifada ○ Stretched from 1987-1933, with uprisings of Palestinians in the Gaza Strip and West Bank that aspired to end Israel’s occupation of their territory and create their own state, Palestinian protest were also heightened following the Israeli invasion of Lebanon in 1982. The first Intifada ended with the signing of the Oslo Accords, which provided a seemingly straightforward framework for peace between the Israelis and Palestinians, failing with the second Intifiada starting in 2000. Wafd Party ○ Egypt’s main nationalist party from 1923-1952 that was essential in Egypt’s independence from Britain. The political party was formed by Saad Zaghloul in 1918 and demanded representation and eventually independence for Egypt, calling for autonomy, a constitutional government, civil rights, and Egyptian control of Sudan and the Suez Canal. Later, in 1978 and 1984, Wafd was reconstituted with President Sadat’s legalization of a multiparty system, and after the Arab Spring uprising in 2011, it has performed as the third largest party in the parliamentary elections of 2011– 12 and 2015. Wahhabism ○ Is a puritianical Muslim sect founded by Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab in the eighteenth century, and became dominant in Saudi Arabia, with its adoption by the Saudi family in 1744. ● ● ● Wahhabism advocates for literal adherence to the Quran, and that all those who do not follow their beliefs are “enemies”. Today, Wahhabism is the state-sponsored form of Sunni Islam in Saudi Arabia. Young Turks ○ Were a group of students and revolutionists who in 1908 overthrew the Ottoman Empire, restored its constitution, and pushed for westernizing reforms. They organized reforms through the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP). At their core, the Young Turks wanted the Ottoman Empire to replace its monarchy with a constitutional government. After they successfully overthrew Abdulhamid II, the Young Turks split into two groups: one forming the Freedom and Accord Party and the other the Party of Union and Progress. Today, this phrase is used to denote a young person who is advocating for radical change. Zionism ○ Is the movement and nationalist ideology that the Jewish people have an old testament right (derived from God’s promise to Abraham) to move, and re-establish a Jewish state in Palestine/Israel, or Zion. Zionism first became politically organized in 1897 under Theodor Herzl, an anti-semitic Austrian who believed that Jewish individuals could only live peacefully if concentrated into a single territory. Zoroastrianism ○ Is a pre-Islamic Persian religion that was made popular in the 11th century by Zoroaster, who preached the existence of a supreme god and a cosmic struggle between the inherent forces of good and evil. The religion was overthrown with the Muslim conquest of Perisa in 651 that also led to the fall of the Sasanian Empire. Zoroastrianism has up to 200,000 adherents today in parts of India and Northern Iran. Essay Questions (2/6): Compare and contrast various reform movements in the Middle East Define one item from the table in Part I that you did NOT define in Part I and discuss its significance. Describe one Reform movement in the Middle East Describe three impacts the Ottoman Empire made on the Middle East. Discuss Arab Nationalism Discuss British policy in Palestine. Discuss Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt and some of its ramifications, successes or failures. Discuss one paper written and/or presented by a classmate in our class Explain the Sykes-Picot Agreement. - Was a secret pact signed by Britain, France, and Russia during WWI (1916) outlining their true intentions to divide the Ottoman Empire amongst themselves, publicly lying to their Arab alliances/promises to the Hashemites (Jordan) and Syria. The agreement led to the creation of the modern borders for Iraq, Israel and the Palestinian territories, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria. The borders were poorly drawn without much Arab insight, splitting populations of Kurds and the Druze, making them minorities in other states. In short, the contradicted promises made by Britain to France, the Arabs, and the Zionist movement. In what ways was Europe or certain European powers interested in the Middle East, and why? (Make sure to give the time frame for your essay) What was one of the effects of the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire after WW1? What was the significance of gunpowder to the Middle East?