Modern Middle East Quiz #3 Review

Nice job guys this looks good! Quiz should be cake Modern Middle East Quiz #3 Review Write 2-3 Sentences, definition/description: 1979 Hostage Crisis: On November 4, 1979, the Muslim Student Followers of the Imam's Line (supporters of the Iranian Revolution which propelled Khomeini to power) seized 66 American citizens at the US Embassy in Tehran. Of those hostages, 52 of them were held for 444 days until January 20, 1981. US President Carter at the time described the hostages as “victims of terrorism and anarchy.” The Iranian hostage crisis is significant because it, alongside the overthrow of US backed leader Reza Pahlavi for Khomeini substantially altered how the US would view and interact with Iran, having a strong influence on our policy and regional interests in the Middle East. 9/11 Attacks: On September 11th, 2001 there was four coordinated attacks by the Al-Qaeda terrorist group that targeted Americans by crashing into both of the World Trade centers in New York, NY, the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia, and the fourth was unsuccessful in destroying its target (probably somewhere in Washington D.C.) because of the passengers overtaking the Hijackers and crashing the plane into a field in Pennsylvania. There were 2,977 fatalities and 25,000 injuries. This launched the United States’ War on Terror and the invasion of Afghanistan to disband the Taliban and target their leader, Osama bin Laden. Arafat: Yasser Arafat (1929-2004) served as both the President of the Palestinian Authority and the Chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) from 1996-2004. Notable moments in his career include his leading of the PLO to a negotiated peace agreement with Israel and signing the Declaration of Principles for Palestinian Self-Rule both in 1993. However, during his time as President various peace summits and negotiations fell through and later after President Bush declared the “war on terror”, Arafat lost most of his credibility with the west and was confined by Israel after allegations of a Palestinian backed suicide attack in Israel, where he would later die of natural causes, with Fatah blaming Israel for his death. Arafat’s role in Palestine during this tremulous position not only in Israeli-Palestinian relations, but with the “war on terror” emerging undeniably had significant impacts into the twenty-first century that are still relevant today. Bashar al-Assad: The current president of Syria since 2000, when he took power following his father, and still upholds the values of the Ba’ath Party. Throughout his leadership, human rights concerns and violations have been at the forefront and an inquiry from the UN in 2017 found him guilty of war crimes, specifically citing the chemical attacks in Khan Shaykhun. Assad still remains on the war criminal list and continues to criticize the American-led intervention in Syria that aimed for a regime change. Recently, Assad has announced he is running for reelection in Syria this May and recently at The Hague, Syria voting rights were stripped at the annual meeting of members of the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, a direct move in response to Assad’s use of chemical weapons on his own people. Armenian Genocide: The Armenian Genocide took place from 1915-1917, during the first World War. It was a campaign by Young Turks of the Ottoman Empire to try and eliminate the Armenians out of regions around Asia Minor. There were over a million Armenians killed, and nearly wiped out the entire people group through brutal killings. The Young Turks persecuted these people because they were seen as a threat to their ruling, and they didn’t want any opposition. It took decades for the Armenian Genocide to be recognized by other countries, and wasn’t referred to as a genocide until 2010 in the United States. Robert Kardashian and his daughter Kim Kardashian have been outspoken advocates for the recognition of the Armenian Genocide in the late 20th and 21st century. Bouazizi: Mohamed Bouazizi (1984-2011) was a Tunisian street-market vendor whose selfimmolation is considered to be the start not only of the Jasmine Revolution in Tunisia but a broader, pro democratic movement that would come to be known as the Arab Spring. After issues with government officials in Ben Arous seizing his products, stating that he needed a permit to be selling, Bouazizi went to arrange a meeting with a local official governor but was denied a meeting, the next day his self-immolation took place in front of the governor’s office. Bouazizi’s actions caught the attention of Tunisians as being emblematic of the societal and economic issues facing average people, ignored by the government, and was indisputably the catalyst for the largest modern-day pro-democracy movement. Tunisian Democracy: Following the Arab Spring, Tunisia was the only case of a nation that did not fall back into authoritarianism, chaos, or civil war. (p. 391). On October 23, 2011, elections were held for a 217-member Constituent Assembly. The victor was the moderate Islamist alNahda Party headed by Hamadi Jebali, who took 41.4% of the votes. The new assembly drafted a new constitution that reflected the balance between Islamist and secular ideologies. However, in the 2014 elections, the secular Nida’ Tunis (Call for Tunisia) Party ousted al-Nahda, which put an end to the Islamist government. This cycle of an Islamist party coming to power, governing, and then being voted out is one of the few successful examples to come out of the “Arab Summer”. (page 383/384). Events of 1979: This year in the Middle East was formative across the region. Unrest was contributed to four failures: failure of secular/religious reform, failure of colonialism, failure of secular “Arab Socialism”, and the failure of the Soviet Union to aid Arabs. In Iran, a coup in 1921 leads to the downfall of the Shah Reza Khan and Khomeini overtaking Iran in the Islamic Revolution. 1979 also saw the Egyptian/Israeli Peace Treaty, Saddam Hussein becoming the President of Iraq, the Qatif uprising, the execution of Pakistan’s Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, and the USSR invasion of Afghanistan as well as their installation of Babrak Karmal. The influence of 1979 in the Middle East were historically unprecedented, events in many countries would fundamentally shape the political situations today in the Middle East. Globally, oil prices spiked due to instability and access, which increased the urgency of the US in the region. Tahrir Square/Tahrir Protests of 2011: Egyptians had long bore the dictatorship of Husni Mubarak, who took control in 1981 after the assassination of Anwar al-Sadat. Economic despair, police brutality, repression, corruption, unemployment, and high living prices all caused by Mubarak are what sparked the protests. On January 25, 2011, many citizens took to the streets in what they labeled a Day of Rage, primarily protesting police abuse. Soon demonstrations were taking place daily in Tahrir Square (in Cairo). Large numbers of lawyers and students joined the protests. Mubarak announced on February 11, 2012 that he would resign and hand over power to the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces (SCAF). The removal of Mubarak did not end the revolt though. During this military-led transition period, mass demonstrations occurred in Tahrir Square and protesters were killed by troops, while others were detained and even tortured. Mubarak was eventually tried and convicted for ordering the use of force against the protesters. (page 377/378) Muhammad Morsi: Morsi (1951-2019) served as President of Egypt from 2012-2013 when he was removed by military action due to popular unrest against his presidential rule. After completing his education and even working at NASA in the United States, Morsi returned to Egypt and became an engineering professor. Following this, Morsi became involved with the Muslim Brotherhood and later after Mubarak was ousted, the Muslim Brotherhood was able to openly run in for political offices in Egypt. Morsi held the Egyptian Presidency for roughly a year from 2012-2013, when in July he was forced to resign from growing social pressures, similar to his predecessor. After resigning, the Muslim Brotherhood and Morsi were driven underground in Egypt and later would be formally outlawed in Egypt. First Intifada: The First Intifada was a Palestinian uprising against strict Israeli military occupation in the West Bank, Gaza Strip, and Israel. It started in December of 1987 and ended with the Madrid Conference in 1991. It was initially a spontaneous homegrown protest movement… Palestinians boycotted Israeli manufactures, such as soap, cigarettes, and fabrics. Some Palestinians did not go to work; instead, they stayed home. One village even refused to pay taxes to Israel authorities. There were many acts of violence as well. The PLO used this uprising to achieve foreign recognition and international legitimacy. In November of 1988, the Palestinian National Council voted to declare an independent “State of Palestine”. This act won diplomatic recognition from over 100 other countries. However, Israel refused to recognize the PLO as a legitimate government, and Palestine similarly opposed peace with Israel, which broke off any hopes of a two-state solution that many people believed would be the only option. (page 323/324 with help of Wikipedia) Bush War on Terror: After the attacks that took place on Sept. 11, 2001, President Bush led a War on Terror through a tactic called counterterrorism. This was an effort to strengthen police, arming the terrorists’ local rivals, practice quiet diplomacy, promote cultural exchanges, and remove conditions that cause terrorism. There were strict sanctions also imposed on Iraq to ensure they didn’t possess any weapons of mass destruction, this led to the loss of a million Iraqi lives. The invasion of Afghanistan was then expanded to Iraq by neoconservative, Paul Wolfowitz (a part of Bush’s administration), and eventually led to all Arab governments opposing the US and Israel. (356-359) Husni Mubarak: Mubarak (1928-2020) was the Egyptian President from 1981 until February 2011, when popular-political unrest stemming from the Arab-Spring forced his resignation. By training, Mubarak was a military officer and fought as the chief commander of the Egyptian Air Force against Israel in 1973. Mubarak became President after the assassination of Anwar Sadat by Khalid al-Islambouli in 1981. His time in office was praised by some as broadening Egypt’s foreign relations with other Arab powers and reaffirming Egypt’s peace treaty with Israel under the Camp David Accords (1979). Calls for Mubarak’s resignation in 2011 stemmed from his continued aid from the United States and more broadly calls for democratic change in Egypt. Ruling since 1981, Mubarak was a significant figure in Egyptian modern development relating to international relationships and US aid. ISIS: ISIS is short for the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria, also known by ISIL (Islamic State of Iraq and Levant). This is a radical Islamic group that splintered off of Al Qaeda. They are known for enacting terrorist attacks and crimes against humanity in various countries. They try and justify their actions off of Sharia Law (18th century Islamic teachings). They use the internet and social media to try and promote their teachings and gain a wider following throughout the Middle East. The current leader is Abu Ibrahim al-Hashimi al-Qurashi who took Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi’s place after he killed himself to avoid being captured in an American raid in 2019. Qatar Crisis: The Qatar Crisis refers to the severing of diplomatic relations (mainly led by Saudi Arabia) between Qatar and other Middle Eastern following claims of Qatar’s alleged support for safeguarding individuals who finance terrorism that had been picked up on by intelligence, government officials, and journalists. In response to the initial start of these claims in 2014, the Emir of Qatar, Hamad Al-Thani stated that Qatar does not harbor finances of terrorist groups, later Qatar when pressured would admit to assisting some groups like the Muslim Brotherhood but denied more militant groups like ISIL or Al-Qaeda. The diplomatic crisis lasted officially until this year when Qatar and Saudi Arabia successfully negotiated a resolution to open borders. This crisis was significant regionally because until earlier this year with the Kuwait-US deal, Qatar and Saudi Arabia had closed off all borders (sea, land, and air) to one another. Second Intifada: During the Second Intifada, General Ariel Sharon (later became the Israeli Prime Minister) made a public visit on Sept. 28, 2000 to the Muslim Shrines on the Temple Mount (al-Haram al-Sharif) to establish Israel’s sovereignty over the Muslim holy site. This angered the Palestinians who retaliated against Jewish settlements. The Israeli Defense forces then began to kill and maim thousands of Palestinians. This event only goes to show Israel and Palestines ongoing disputes over religious grounds/sites and who has power/control over them. (Pg. 340) [The] Iran Nuclear Deal: or the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA), refers to the international agreement between Iran and P5+1 countries (China, France, Russia, UK, US, Germany, EU) relating to Iran’s enrichment of uranium and limiting Iran’s ability to produce a nuclear weapon in a short time frame, in return for the economic relief of sanctions. The Iran nuclear deal is enforced by the “snapback” mechanism the UN has to revoke the sanctions lift and routine checks to ensure Iran was complying. In recent years with former President Trump pulling the US from the deal and President Biden trying to restate negotiations, as well as recent speculated attacks from Mossad (Israeli intelligence) have seen Iran enriching uranium at rates outside the JCPOA and building new nuclear facilities. The JCPOA is significant because it increases the time that Iran would need to create a nuclear weapon, it is known by researchers and politicians globally that a nuclear Iran is a geopolitical threat to the Middle East. Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi: Al-Baghdadi came from a deeply religious Sunni family and studied Islamic studies at the Islamic University of Iraq in Baghdad. He was able to rise in ranks within Al-Qaida and the Islamic State of Iraq through his relations with its previous leader Abu Umar alBaghdadi. Eventually in 2010 after Abu Umar’s death, Abu Bakr rose as the next emir of AQI/ISIS. He led an attack and seized most of Sunni Iraq (eventually had power over a portion of land the size of Britain) and declared ISIS as the Islamic State from the pulpit of the mosque in Mosul. He then led ISIS as they took control through fear, religious cleansing of Christians and Yazidis, sex slavery, and murder. (Pg. 389) Yazidis--Atrocities against: Yazidis were a religious group residing in northern Iraq (Sinjar) who were deeply persecuted, sex trafficked (6,396 people), and murdered (5,500 people) by ISIS in 2014. 300,000 Yazidi left the region to neighboring countries like Syria and only 3,220 families returned in 2016. ISIS was trying to bring the Hour of Doom to fruition (end times) through the religious cleansing of the Yazidi. ISIS forced men and women to convert to Islam, and regardless of the results of conversion they forced the Yazidi into slavery. Some into manual labor (farming) in neighboring countries, but most (women, boys, and girls) were forced into sex slavery selling anywhere from 13-12,500 USD. Write 5-10 Sentences, select 2 prompts: Explain TWO factors connected with the rise of ISIS. One of the factors for the rise of ISIS was American’s involvement and monitoring of Arab countries. This was done to try and limit the amount of participation and action coming from the radical terrorist group, but instead raised their agitation levels and violent resistance. Another factor that led to the rise of ISIS was the fact that it is a faction off of al-qaeda and many Sunni’s joined their forces after Saddam Hussein died. The differences between the Sunnis and Shi’a drove the Sunnis to turn to ISIS to gain power and military strength to try and raise up against the competing faction in the Islamic faith. Discuss the rise of protests and revolutions in TWO Arab states. Discuss two to three specific environmental challenges in the Middle East regarding growing concerns over water rights, management and access. Discuss the short-term and long-term legacies of Egypt’s Tahrir Square protests. - - - Short-term: Dictator Husni Mubarak out of power. He had even dismissed members of his regime in hopes of pleasing the public. He also reduced food prices. Elections for a lower house of Parliament were held at the end of 2011. Similar to the elections held in Tunisia, the results favored the Islamists. The elections for the upper house of Parliament in February 2012 yielded similar results. Mohamed Morsi won the presidential election of May/June 2012. Long-term: When Morsi refused to step down, the Egyptian army overthrew him and replaced him with Sisi. When Sisi became president on June 8, 2014, the army was undeniably back in power. “The Egyptian old guard reasserted political and economic control over the government’s domestic and foreign policies”. Authoritarianism had taken place yet again, with political freedoms repressed more than they were under Mubarak. Real opposition groups have been suppressed, and tens of thousands of political opponents were killed. “Tahrir Square has become a mere traffic circle today.” 377/378 and 384 short term. 392 for long-term Why/how Tunisia was able to come out of the Arab Spring the most democratic Arab State - Check ID above. Shortened version - they were able to successfully hold an election that eventually found a secular party in power that represented more than just moderate Islamists. Able to draft a new constitution too that provided more liberties that weren’t available under the previous dictatorship. - P. 376: “the population continued to protest, insisting that any new form of government had to be free from the old ruling elite”. 377: when the Tunisian army briefly was in charge, they defied orders to fire upon the crowds and maintained order during the political vacuum. Otherwise, it might have descended into chaos. How does Noah Feldman explain Tunisia’s post Arab Spring success? - Chapter 5. I’ll look more tomorrow What has been the US role in Middle East security concerns? Discuss any key idea in Noah Feldman’s book Arab Winter. - - “The third major claim I want to advance is that the events that followed the Arab spring fundamentally transformed political Islam—broadly, the set of ideas and movements that aspire to a constitutional order grounded in the shari‘a.4 Prior to the Arab spring, modern, Sunni, political Islam had undergone a nearly twenty-five-year process in which some of its most prominent exponents began to advocate for Arab states to Islamize their political order by democratic, constitutional means.” Excerpt From: Noah Feldman. “The Arab Winter.” Apple Books. Page 19 Briefly discuss one aspect of US involvement in Arab affairs 2001-present The United States has greatly increased their involvement in Arab Affairs after the terrorist attacks that took place on American soil on Sept. 11, 2001. There was an immediate American response and advocation for there to be an invasion in Afghanistan (similar to when Pearl Harbor was attacked in 1941). Since then, America has had troops stationed in different Arab countries like Afghanistan and Iraq to monitor, sanction, and eliminate terrorist and taliban threats. With America being so heavily involved in and monitoring Arab affairs, it has created resentment and hostility between the Middle East and America. (look at Bush War on Terror ID for more supporting facts) Who and where are the Yazidis, and what atrocities were carried out against them? Yazidis were a religious group residing in northern Iraq (Sinjar) who were deeply persecuted, sex trafficked (6,396 people), and murdered (5,500 people) by ISIS in 2014. The Yazidis practice an ancient gnostic religion with one main god named Malak ṬāṬūs who reveals himself in the form of a peacock. They also worship 7 other higher angelic beings, which is very different from the Islamic monothistic faith. These differences angered ISIS and so they wanted to either force conversion, or eliminate the opposition. 300,000 Yazidi left the region to neighboring countries like Syria and only 3,220 families returned in 2016. ISIS was trying to bring the Hour of Doom to fruition (end times) through the religious cleansing of the Yazidi. ISIS forced men and women to convert to Islam, and regardless of the results of conversion they forced the Yazidi into slavery. Some into manual labor (farming) in neighboring countries, but most (women, boys, and girls) were forced into sex slavery selling anywhere from 13-12,500 USD. What factors inspired the Arab Spring's start in Tunisia beyond the immolation of BouAzizi? - - - - BouAzizi: December 17, 2010. 26 years old, was abused by the police in the town of Sidi Bouzid. A policewoman confiscated the cart that he used to sell fruits and vegetables. The authorities refused to hear his appeal. This toxic mix of economic despair, police brutality, and bureaucratic indifference to his plight led BouAzizi to light himself on fire in front of the Sidi Bouzid municipal building. This set off the mass protests in Tunisia. Beyond BouAzizi: By the end of 2010, confrontations were occurring daily throughout the country. Police violence escalated. Soon, large numbers of lawyers and students demonstrated in solidarity with the poor and unemployed people who had been arrested, injured, or killed by police. Early in 2011 an anonymous cyberactivist organization proclaimed Operation Tunisia, began attacking government websites and temporarily shutting some of them down. The regime escalated the violence by ordering snipers to shoot randomly into crowds. Instead of stopping the protests, this action shocked most Tunisians and earned the protesters nationwide support. Unemployment hovered around 14% for Ben Ali’s rule, and university graduates saw a rate of 25%. Many Tunisians saw no future for themselves or their children. Corruption thrived among those close to Ben Ali’s circle, including his own family members, as well as within the police. The police force was a privileged element that both protected and was protected by the regime. Its interests were thus isolated from those of the larger Tunisian population. Page 376