The Mandate of Heaven: Zhou Dynasty's Divine Rule

How did the Mandate of Heaven develop? How did geography impact conflicts between kings and nobles under the Zhou dynasty? How did Confucianism and Daoism create order in ancient China? Mandate of Heaven, Warring States Period, centralization, Zhou, Confucianism, Daoism When the Zhou tribe overthrew the last Shang king, they had to convince the people, especially the nobles, that they had the right to rule. The Zhou told people that the gods in heaven had told them that they were to rule. This was called "The Mandate of Heaven", heaven's orders. The Chou added that the gods had warned them that they would only rule as long as they were good rulers. If they became selfish, and thought of themselves first, before the people, that heaven would appoint another ruling family. No one knows if the nobles in ancient China believed this fairy tale, but they most probably thought that the Mandate of Heaven sounded like a good idea. The nobles were tired of war between the Shang and the Zhou. Most of the nobles would have the same life under Shang or Chou rule, and they knew it. As for the peasants, it did not matter to them which family ruled. The Mandate of Heaven is based on four principles: 1. 2. 3. 4. The right to rule is granted by Heaven. There is only one Heaven therefore there can be only one ruler. The right to rule is based on the virtue of the ruler. The right to rule is not limited to one dynasty. Here are some of the ways these principles converted into action and justification: 1. It gives the ruler prestige and religious importance. 2. It gives the ruler supreme power. 3. It allows a new ruler to gain power quickly if the people believe he has the 'Mandate of Heaven'. 4. A ruler's power must be kept in check by virtue. The Mandate of Heaven justifies rebellion as long as the rebellion is successful. Simply because it was successful, obviously then, the new ruler had to have had a Mandate from Heaven. Robert Oxnam :: The Chinese emperor was understood to be the "Son of Heaven" responsible for maintaining harmony between the human sphere and heaven. He ruled society with the "Mandate of Heaven." Myron Cohen :: The emperor as the Son of Heaven had received the Mandate of Heaven to rule society. The emperor, therefore, played a key role in linking the human social order to other domains of the cosmic order. Therefore, the emperor could be held fully responsible for disturbances in that order. Wm. Theodore de Bary :: The idea of the Mandate that one claims to have received from heaven is one that doesn't emphasize so much the confirming of one's authority as the importance of anyone who exercises or claims to exercise that authority doing so in a responsible way, responsible for the welfare of the people. So it really is a concept that imposes a moral test, a qualification, on the ruler, rather than accepting simply the claims that he might assert on the basis of either heredity or the acquisition of power. Irene Bloom :: This idea of course remains one of the most important ideas in all of Chinese political thought, right down to the twentieth century. When the students were demonstrating in Tiananmen Square in the spring of 1989, one of their arguments was that the Communist party had lost the Mandate of Heaven. And so you can see this continuity over time from the early Zhou period from the eleventh century right down into our own time. The Zhou Dynasty 1122 BCE - 256 BCE The Chinese civilization expanded during the time of the Zhou dynasty. The massive size that the dynasty covered was too much for the Zhou leaders to handle due to the poor means of communication. Because of this, the leaders decided to appoint people to oversee each of the territories. The territories started off as walled off cities. The leader of each of the territories were the lords, each receiving the title through inheritance. Next in the hierarchy were the fighting men, followed by the peasants and the domestic slaves. Soon, these territories became more independent, eventually breaking away from the main Zhou dynasty leaders. The Zhou society was based on agricultural production. During that time, the land of the lords was divided among the peasants to grow crops. They were divided up into three by three squares, with the eight outer squares being worked on by the peasants. The center tract of land was worked on by all eight of the peasants for the lord. The extent of this type of land distibution was unclear, but the later dynasties believed that this was the most equitable way of dealing with land distribution and use. The religious practice of the Zhou empire reflected their hierarchical way of life. The Zhou kings believed that they were given a mandate from heaven to rule. The kings prayed and sacrificed to Shang Ti, the Lord on High, now called T'ien (Heaven), and to their ancestors. The lords of the territories prayed to the local nature gods and to the gods of agriculture in addition to their ancestors. If any sacrifices or prayers were missed, great ill was predicted to fall on the territory or kingdom of the neglectful leader. Eastern Zhou In 770 BCE, the Zhou kings lost control of the territories they had delegated to their lords. These territories, along with non-Chinese forces, rebelled and defeated the original Zhou capital. The Zhou then formed a new capital farther East. From this new capital, the Zhou forfeited their political and military control over their territories. The territories now were larger and more powerful than the original Zhou kingdom. Even though the Zhou were not in control, they still thought they were appointed by the heavans and continued to be the ceremonial lords of the kingdoms. During this time, there was great economic growth, even among the constant warfare between the territories. It was also during this time that China entered its Iron Age. The Iron Age brought iron-tipped oxdrawn plows and improved irrigation techniques which increased the agricultural yield which in turn increased the population. With the increase in population came greater wealth, and people started to become merchants and traders. With the explosion of the merchant and trader class, the improvement of communication was inevitable. The improvement came in the form of expanding the horseback communication system. This increase in the economic situation allowed the rulers to control more and more territories. Communication was far better than before, and a ruler could have a larger empire and still be kept up to date on situations that may arise. The territories that were located at the edges of the Zhou empire expanded into non-Chinese countries. Upon expanding, the kingdoms of the Zhou became more diversified and these kingdoms selectively chose the aspects of the newly acquired culture to assimilate into their own. One such aspect was the mounted cavalry. Before, all the Chinese fighting was by foot soldiers. By the 6th century, seven powerful states arose from the former Zhou territories. With the Zhou dynasty's decline and the rise of power of the former territories, the situation in China became unstable. Then, by the late 5th century, the Zhou dynasty fell into a state of interstate anarchy, this period was known as the Period of the Warring States. The Golden Age of Chinese Philosophy 403 BCE - 221 BCE Due to the instability of China, an intellectual movement swept through China that shaped China's state and culture. The most influential of the philosophers was Confucious. Confucius was the representation of the emerging class of administrators and advisors that were needed to aid rulers deal with the ever-present need of diplomacy with other states and internal administration. Confucius wanted a return to the Zhou style of governing. He believed that the rulers of that period had tried to develop a society based on the example of great personal virtue. By this, Confucius then took to the task of creating a class based on virtue that would take over the high positions of government and lead the people by their example. In addition to Confucianism, another school of philosophy was Daoism. The principles of Daosim are explained in the Tao-te-Ching or "Classic of the Way and Its Virtue." This text is said to have been created by Lao-tzu and in the works of Chuang-tzu. The Daoist philosophy was based on simplicity. The belief is that the government should be hands off, and let the people deal with the problems of nature and the people should return to primitive agricultural communities. Legalism was the third school of philosophy. The philosophers felt that, during their time of great disorder and chaos, something needed to be done. The legalist philosophers believed that every aspect of life should be ruled by a set of strict and impersonal laws. To have this system work, the legalists needed to have a powerful and wealthy state where the ruler had ultimate authority. The wealth and military strength is what gave the state and ruler power. Fall of the Zhou Dynasty and the Rise of the Ch'in State During the 4th century BCE, the state of Ch'in, one of the former territories of the Zhou kingdom, emerged as a power. Based on theories of a leading legalist, the Ch'in kingdom reformed its administration, economy, and military and became stronger as the Zhou empire weakened and eventually died in 256 BCE. Soon, the Ch'in had conquered the seven other warring states. Zhou Dynasty The Zhou dynasty is divided into two periods: the Western Zhou (ca. 1100–770 B.C.) with the capital near present-day Xi'an, Shaanxi province, and the Eastern Zhou (770–256 B.C.) when the capital was moved to Luoyang, Henan province. The Eastern Zhou is traditionally divided into the Spring and Autumn period (770–ca. 470 B.C.) and the Warring States period (ca. 470–221 B.C.). After the move of the Zhou court to Luoyang, China was ruled by many smaller contending states until the rise of the Qin dynasty in 221 B.C. Early on, the Zhou people occupied an area in present-day Shaanxi province to the west of the Shang territories, but around 1100 B.C. conquered the Shang to whom they had at times served as a tributary state. Historical documents demonstrate that the Zhou rulers saw themselves as the cultural and political successors of the Shang state. The Shang production of "ritual art" (liqi) in bronze and jade continued unabated. Many Zhou inscriptions on ritual bronzes indicate the importance of ancestor worship and veneration. Bronze design motifs were sometimes created with repetitive stamps, pointing to the nascent development of mass production techniques. The reduction of human sacrifices found in tombs is one way Zhou culture departed from its predecessor. This tendency may demonstrate a shift in perceptions of the afterlife, where human assistance for the deceased was now embodied by straw, wooden, or ceramic replicas. Accompanying burial articles placed in tombs also began taking the form of miniature models and simulacra that, along with the funerary architecture, may both have been conceived as "brilliant artifacts" (mingqi). The Zhou rulers worked to extend their territory and developed a system of governance that gave hereditary power to local leaders, including relatives of the royal family, trusted subordinates, and loyal local chiefs. This decentralization eventually broke down as power and ambition grew in regional centers. In 770 B.C. the Zhou sovereign was killed by an alliance of his vassals and enemies. His son was enthroned and the main capital moved east to Luoyang. This was the beginning of the Eastern Zhou period, but the Zhou rulers never regained their former supremacy. Constant warfare dominated the Eastern Zhou period. This led to many technological advances made in connection with military matters. By the seventh century B.C., advancements in iron production allowed for new and stronger weapons and farm tools. More peaceful and artistic advances were also made. Bronze coinage was introduced and widely circulated. Lost–wax, inlay, and intricate bronze casting techniques were refined, as seen on mirrors, bells, lamps, and surviving metalware. During this period, relationships between designs and motifs of different media, such as jade and bronze or lacquer and textiles, also raise questions about the transmission of workshop practices and the cultural interaction within and beyond China's borders. The later Zhou period is best remembered as a time of intellectual adventurism as new philosophical schools, such as Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism, flourished in abundance. Perhaps the most famous of these schools was founded by Confucius (551–479 B.C.), whose societal vision called for individuals to understand and accept their position in the social and familial hierarchy. Confucius' transmitted teachings later became the crux of a political system that emphasized the proper relationships between different members of society. Particularly attractive to rulers were the Confucian precepts calling for loyalty and obedience to one's ruler, father, and family. This created a strict hierarchy of ritual and social self-control. As Confucianism spread it became the overarching ethical code throughout much of East Asia, palpable even today. Another important native school of thought was Daoism, which in the Zhou period was an eclectic group of popular beliefs in which humans were not seen as the dominating entity. Instead they were urged to seek a balance with the natural world. The Zhou dynasty figure Confucianism Confucianism is the cornerstone of traditional Chinese culture as well as a complete ideological system created by Confucius, based on the traditional culture of the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties. It has dominated a feudal society that in essence has lasted 2000 years and for that reason its influence over the history, social structure and the people of China cannot be overlooked. Life of Confucius Confucius has proved to be the greatest influence over the Chinese character. Besides being a great educationist, thinker and unsuccessful politician, he was first of all an intellect with a noble morality. He pursued truth, kindness and perfection throughout his life and his success and failure were largely due to his character, which had an everlasting impact on Chinese intellect. He was born in 551B.C in the State of Lu which is known today as Qufu in Shandong Province. In Chinese, his name was Kong Qiu. Kong was the family name while Qiu was his given name. This was because his parents had prayed for a son at Niqiu Hill and 'Qiu' was an appropriate token of their thanks and joy at having their prayers answered. Sadly, his father died when he was very young but despite a hard life, he dedicated himself to study at the age of 15. Photo by: Wikipedia Creative Commons Sometime before 1000 BC, a small nomadic clan took permanent residence at point in the Wei River Valley and there, built a town. This small town was the beginning of the world’s longest standing dynasty. The clan was named Zhou whose ancestry traces even farther back in time. They transformed the little town they started with into a centre for their rapidly growing influence and power. This steady rise to power and control climaxed with the overthrow of the Shang Dynasty. The friction with the then rulers of the Shang Dynasty began with Jili, son of Danfu who led the Zhou Clan to where they made their foothold. Jili led his men in a battle against the reigning King’s vassal. He fought to the death and was succeeded by his son, who later became known as King Wen of Zhou. King Wen is one of the three revered leaders of the Zhou Dynasty. He pushed back the Shang army far enough but it was his son, King Wu who finally saw the Shang Dynasty to its end. The Mandate of Heaven These three men who started the Zhou Dynasty were revered and remembered as the ideal leaders of China. They legitimized their usurpation of the throne with the doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven. The doctrine basically says that whoever was the leader of the empire was placed there by the will of god. It is also a self-validating prophecy as the only proof of being undeserving of the throne is the fact that you were overthrown. The doctrine preaches that “Tian” or Heaven, gives the “tianming” or mandate to rule upon the family that has been found to be morally apt for the duty. This was happily accepted by the people in light of the fact that the rulers of the Shang dynasty had greatly deteriorated morally and their citizens suffered depravity. For better or for worse, this is how China thought of its leaders then. They believed that there was only one god called Heaven and kings were his sons. And this is why during the Zhou Dynasty, the empire was called the Celestial Empire: the only empire in the whole of China’s epic history to last for more than eight hundred years, from 1122 to 221 BC. New Worship Confucius in Myths & Legends of China, 1922, by E.T.C. Werner The rule of the Zhou Family heralded many changes for the Empire, many of which were so popular that they still mark China up to today, more than one thousand years later. In divination and religious practices, human sacrifice in burials and rites were substantially lessened as new ways of worship were indoctrinated in the people. The Birth of Confucianism The Zhou dynasty was also a golden age for Chinese Philosophy. It was in this era that the famous Confucius (551-479 BCE) was born, which marked the birth of Confucianism. This is one of the most pervasive thoughts and doctrines the world has ever seen. It teaches neither of a god nor talk of an afterlife but preaches of a way to live one’s life with honor in duty. The Birth of Taoism Taosim was also born during this age. The philosopher Lao Tsu founded the religion and taught of a naturalistic “path to life.” The religion was centered on the three jewels of the Taoist faith: compassion, moderation and humility. The “wu wei” or non-action was also born of this faith. The empire also grew leaps and bounds in terms of agriculture. Agriculture and technology therefor improved enough to make agriculture produce China’s main food source in lieu of livestock or game. Hunting ceased to be a necessity and became merely a sport. This advancement came in the form of the use of field grid patterns which allowed the farmers to make better and more efficient use of the land. It also made irrigation easier and more systematic. The Iron Dynasty Photo by: Wikipedia Creative Commons The use of iron also became popular during the Zhou dynasty. They used iron for almost everything including some very helpful tools which further improved their methods. They devised iron instruments which they used for animal drawn plowing and other things. The technology pertaining to iron in this era has been said to have preceded and exceeded that of the European regions. This dynasty learned how to make cast iron a good century before anyone did in Europe. Advancements in iron technology also brought about many improvements apart from the agricultural ones. It greatly increased their army’s strength with the new weapons and protective gear they were able to create. This was very helpful in expanding the already vast reach of the empire. Zhou Writings and Poetry It was also during the Zhou Dynasty that the recording and documentation of history became more pronounced. The Books of documents is the first book written on Chinese history. There were also great historical literary pieces that emerged from this dynasty. The Classic of Poetry is a vast collection of poems, with some of them said to date from ass early as 1000BC. There was also the Zhou Li, the Zhou Rituals. It told of the duties of a man and the honourable way to carry them out. The earlier part of the Zhou dynasty is called the Western Zhou. This was the empire father and son Wen and Wu. The center of the empire then was the Yellow River Valley and succession was based on kinship. While the empire expanded eastward, the center shifted in that direction as well and the Eastern Zhou was born. The new capital was moved in an area near what is now Luoyang. This was a time when the leaders were chosen based on an autocracy. This period also saw the beginning of taxation and forced labor. The empire had slowly fragmented into smaller kingdoms until in 481 BC, it was appropriately termed as an empire of Warring states. The once great empire was divided into three, the Wei, Han and Zhao. This was a time of feudalism and when a uniform currency was established to facilitate trade with farther regions. The dynasty would remain divided and in constant internal dissent until the Qin Dynasty reunited it. Red and Dark Brown Lacquer on Wood. Wine Cups from the Warring States Period of the Chou Dynasty. Minneapolis Institute of Arts NSGill --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The Chou or Zhou dynasty ruled China from about 1027 to about 221 B.C. It was the longest dynasty in Chinese history. The Chou Dynasty followed the second Chinese dynasty, the Shang. Originally pastoralists, the Chou set up a (proto-)feudal social organization based on families, with administrative bureaucracy, and developed a middle class. From such a decentralized tribal system, the Zhou became centralized over time. Iron was introduced and Confucianism was developed. Sun Tzu wrote The Art of War in about 500 B.C. Chinese Philosophers and Religion: During the Warring States period of the Chou dynasty, a class of scholars developed, whose members included the great Chinese philosopher Confucius. The Book of Changes was written during the Chou Dynasty. The philosopher Lao Tse was appointed librarian for the historical records of the Chou kings. This period is sometimes referred to as the One Hundred Schools Period. The Chou banned human sacrifice and saw their success over the Shang as a mandate from heaven. Ancestor worship developed. Start of the Chou Dynasty: Wuwang ("Warrior King") was the son of the leader of the Chou (Zhou) located on the western border of the Shang's China in what is now Shaanxi province. He formed a coalition with the leaders of other states to defeat the last, evil ruler of the Shang. They succeeded and Wuwang became the first king of the Chou dynasty (c.1046-43 B.C.). Division of the Chou Dynasty: Conventionally, the Chou dynasty is divided into the Western or Royal Chou (c.1027-771 B.C.) and the Dong or Eastern Chou (c.770-221 B.C.) periods. The Dong Zhou itself is subdivided into the Spring and Autumn (Chunqiu) period (c.770-476 B.C.), which was named for a book supposedly by Confucius and when iron weapons and farm implements replaced bronze, and the Warring States (Zhanguo) period (c.475-221 B.C.). At the start of the Western Chou, the empire of the Chou extended from Shaanxi to the Shandong peninsula and the Beijing area. The first kings of the Chou dynasty gave land to friends and relatives. Like the two previous dynasties, there was a recognized leader who passed power to his descendants. The vassals' walled cities, also passed down patriarchally, developed into kingdoms. By the end of the Western Chou, the central government had lost all but nominal power, such as was required for rituals. During the Warring States period, the aristocratic system of warfare changed: peasants fought; there were new weapons, including crossbows, chariots, and iron armor. Developments During the Chou Dynasty: During the Chou dynasty in China, ox-drawn ploughs, iron and iron casting, horseback riding, coinage, multiplication tables, chopsticks, and the crossbow were introduced. Roads, canals, and major irrigation projects were developed. Legalism: Legalism developed during the Warring States period. Legalism is a school of philosophy that provided the philosophical background for the first imperial dynasty, the Qin Dynasty. Legalism accepted that humans are flawed and asserted that political institutions should recognize this. Therefore the state should be authoritarian, demanding strict obedience to the leader, and meting out known rewards and punishments.