Cognitive Psychology - Assignment Feedback

QUESTION 1 Illustrative of functional fixedness, people are more likely to solve the candle problem if - - - - -. 1. 2. 3. 4. fewer tacks are provided pliers are also presented the box is empty the candle is already lit Option 3 is correct. An example of functional fixedness is provided by the candle problem, which was first described by Karl Duncker (1945). When Duncker did this experiment, he presented one group of participants with small cardboard boxes containing all the materials (candles, tacks and matches) and presented another group with the same materials, but outside the boxes, so the boxes were empty. When he compared the performance of the two groups, he found that the group that had been presented with the boxes as containers found the problem more difficult than did the group presented with the empty boxes. Some years later, Adamson (1952) repeated this experiment and obtained the same result: participants who were presented with empty boxes were twice as likely to solve the problem as participants who were presented with boxes that were being used as containers (see CP, pp. 368-369). QUESTION 2 Research in neuroeconomics has found that the function of the - - - - - may be to deal with the cognitive demands of a given task, while the - - - - - is responsible for handling emotional goals such as resenting an unfair outcome. 1. 2. 3. 4. basal ganglia; corpus callosum striate nucleus; l ocus coeruleus prefrontal cortex; insula diencephalon; putamen Option 3 is correct. Neuroeconomics combines research from the fields of psychology, neuroscience and economics to study how brain activation is related to decisions that involve potential gains or losses. This research has identified several areas of the brain that are activated as people make decisions while playing economic games. Some of these brain areas are associated with affective experiences, which thus confirms earlier suggestions that decisions are often influenced by emotions. Sanfey et al.’s (2002) experiment measured brain activity in the responders as they were making their decisions. The results showed that the right anterior insula, an area located deep within the brain between the parietal and temporal lobes, was activated about three times more strongly when responders rejected an offer than when they accepted it. Interestingly, this specific area of the brain is associated with negative emotional states, including pain, distress, hunger, anger and disgust. These results thus show that when these negative emotions are elicited the offer is more likely to get rejected (across participants). The prefrontal cortex (PFC) was also activated by the decision task, but this activation was the same for offers that were rejected and offers that were accepted. Sanfey et al. (2003) hypothesised that the function of the PFC may be to deal with the cognitive demands of the task, which involves the goal of accumulating as much money as possible. Looked at in this way, each of these brain areas represents a different goal of the ultimatum game—the emotional goal of resenting unfair- ness is handled by the anterior insula, and the cognitive goal of accumulating money is handled by the PFC (refer to CP, pp. 434-435). QUESTION 3 Funahashi et al. (1989) recorded neurons in the prefrontal cortex of monkeys during a delayed response task. These neurons showed the most intense firing during - - - - -. 1. 2. 3. 4. stimulus presentation delay response encoding Option 2 is correct. A key result of Funahashi’s et al. (2006) experiment was that there were neurons that responded only when the square was flashed in a particular location and that these neurons continued responding during the delay. For example, some neurons responded only when the square was flashed in the upper right corner and then during the delay; other neurons responded only when the square was presented at other positions on the screen and then during the delay. The firing of these neurons indicates that an object was presented at a particular place, and this information about where the object was remains available for as long as these neurons continue firing (see CP, p. 152). QUESTION 4 In its discussion of expertise and problem solving, your prescribed text identifies the kind of scientists who are most likely to make revolutionary discoveries in their fields. This particular discussion suggests that - - - - - may be more important than - - - - - in creative thinking. 1. 2. 3. 4. experience; structure structure; experience flexibility; experience experience; flexibility Option 3 is correct. It has been suggested that being an experienced expert may be a disadvantage when confronting a problem that requires flexible thinking—a problem whose solution may involve rejecting the usual procedures in favour of other procedures that might not normally be used (refer to CP, p. 389). QUESTION 5 A researcher records a brainstorming session in an industrial research and development department rather than in an artificial laboratory setting. Later, she analyses the recorded discussions, identifying certain problem-solving techniques. This research is an example of - - - - - research. 1. 2. 3. 4. think-aloud protocol situationally-produced mental set environmental functional fixedness in vivo problem-solving Option 4 is correct. In vivo problem-solving research involves observing people to determine how they solve problems in real-world situations. This method has been used to study the use of analogy in a number of different settings, including laboratory meetings of a university research group and brainstorming sessions in which the goal was to develop a new product. Discussions recorded during these meetings have been analyzed for statements indicating that analogy is being used to help solve a problem. The advantage of the in vivo approach is that it captures thinking in naturalistic settings. A disadvantage is that it is time-consuming, and, as with most observational research, it is difficult to isolate (CP, p. 386) and control specific variables. QUESTION 6 Functional fixedness would be LOWEST for a(n) - - - - -. 1. 2. 3. 4. novel object familiar object frequently used object object with a specific function Option 1 is correct. One of the major obstacles to problem solving, according to the Gestalt psychologists, is fixation—people’s tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of the problem that keeps them from arriving at a solution. One type of fixation that can work against solving a problem is focusing solely on familiar functions or uses of an object; this is called functional fixedness. If an item or object is novel, one is lessl likely to know what it’s function is – thus chances of functional fixedness occuring is less likely (CP, pp. 368-372). QUESTION 7 Which of the following statements would most likely invoke the operation of a permission schema? 1. 2. 3. 4. No artists can be beekeepers, but some of the beekeepers must be chemists. All A are B. All B are C. Therefore, all A are C. I forgot to charge my cell phone last night, therefore I missed an important call today. If I get an A on my cognitive psychology exam, I can go out with my friends Saturday night. Option 4 is correct. The permission schema is a pragmatic reasoning schema that states that if a person satisfies condition A (getting an A in my cognitive psychology exams) they then get to carry out action B (going out with my friends Saturday night). Using a practical permission schema to a abstract situation could assist in mastering the abstract situation easier (see CP, p. 420). QUESTION 8 Autobiographical memory contains both - - - - - and - - - - - components. 1. 2. 3. 4. Explicit; implicit Procedural; skill Semantic; episodic Priming; repitition Option 3 is the correct answer. Autobiographical memory (AM) is defined as memory for specific experiences from our life, which can include both episodic and semantic components. Experiencing a memory by using mental time travel is episodic memory. However, autobiographical memories can also contain semantic components, for example, an autobiographical memory of a childhood birthday party might include images of the cake, people at the party and games being played (episodic memory); it might also include knowledge about when the party occurred, where your family was living at the time and general knowledge about what usually happens at birthday parties (semantic memory) (CP, pp. 171 & 222). When we say that episodic memory is memory for experiences and that semantic memory is memory for facts, we are distinguishing between two types of memory based on the types of information remembered. Tulving (1985) suggested that apart from this difference episodic and semantic memory can also be distinguished based on the type of experience associated with each (CP, p. 171). QUESTION 9 According to the review by Baas et al. (2008) which mood will enhance creativity the most? 1. 2. 3. 4. anger sadness content cheerful Option 4 is correct. Baas et al (2008) reviewed 25 years of research on the mood-creativity relationship and concluded that creativity is enhanced by positive and ‘cheerful’ mood states that are both activating and associated with an approach motivation, like happiness (CP, p. 395). QUESTION 10 Memory enhancement due to repetition priming is a result of - - - - -. 1. 2. 3. 4. the test stimulus being the same or resembling the priming stimulus the test stimulus being different from the priming stimulus the test stimulus being similar in meaning to the priming stimulus the test stimulus being different in meaning from the priming stimulus Option 1 is correct. Another form of implicit memory is priming. Priming occurs when the presentation of one stimulus (the priming stimulus) changes the way a person responds to another stimulus (the test stimulus). one type of priming, repetition priming, occurs when the test stimulus is the same as, or resembles, the priming stimulus, and this facilitates memory enhancement (refer to CP, p. 180). QUESTION 11 Which statement below is most closely associated with levels of processing theory? 1. 2. 3. 4. Information enters memory by passing through a number of levels, beginning with sensory memory, then short-term memory, then long-term memory. Events that are repeated enough can influence our behaviour, even after we have forgotten the original events. Deep processing involves paying closer attention to a stimulus than shallow processing and results in better processing. People who were sad when they studied did better when they were sad during testing. Option 3 is correct. An early idea linking the type of encoding to retrieval, proposed by Craik and Lockhart (1972), is called levels of processing theory. According to levels of processing theory, memory depends on the depth of processing that an item receives. Depth of processing distinguishes between shallow processing and deep processing. Shallow processing involves little attention to meaning, as when a phone number is repeated over and over, or when attention is focused on a word’s physical features such as whether it is printed in lowercase or capital letters. Deep processing involves close attention, focusing on an item’s meaning and relating it to something else. According to levels of processing theory, deep processing results in better memory than shallow processing (CP, p. 189). QUESTION 12 Holyoak and Koh (1987) presented different versions of the light bulb problem to assist in solving the radiation problem. They found the - - - - - version to be more effective, because it had - - - - - features in common with the radiation problem. 1. 2. 3. 4. insufficient-intensity; surface insufficient-intensity; structural fragile-glass; surface fragile-glass; structural Option 4 is correct. After having established that similar surface fea- tures enhance the chances for analogical transfer, Holyoak and Koh (1987) carried out a subsequent experiment in which they investigated the effect of varying the structural features of the problem. Structural features are the underlying principle that governs the solution. In the radiation and lightbulb problem, the structural features are strong ray destroys tissue for the radiation problem, and strong laser breaks lightbulb for the lightbulb problem. In this experiment, the surface features were kept constant by using the lightbulb problem as the source problem and the radiation problem as the target problem. The structural features were varied however, by presenting two versions of the lightbulb problem. both versions began with the story about the broken filament surrounded by glass and the information that the filament could be repaired by fusing it with a high-intensity laser beam. But the problem that needed to be solved in order to fix the filament was different in the two versions. The first version, called the fragile-glass version, was essentially the same as the original lightbulb problem. In this version, the structural features of the lightbulb and radiation problems were thus similar (CP, p. 383). QUESTION 13 - - - - - states that the larger the number of individuals that are randomly drawn from a population, the more representative the resulting group will be of the entire population. 1. 2. 3. 4. Statistical significance Size effect Study robustness The law of large numbers Option 4 is correct. The law of large numbers states that the larger the number of individuals that are randomly drawn from a population, the more representative the resulting group will be of the entire population. Conversely, samples of small numbers of individuals will be less representative of the population (CP, p. 408). QUESTION 14 The studies by Deeprose et al. (2004, 2005) suggest that unconscious learning during anaesthesia exists but is dependent on - - - - -. 1. 2. 3. 4. the use of fentanyl the use of propofol and fentanyl which type of implicit task was used surgical stimulation Option 4 is correct. Deeprose et al. (2004, 2005) studies suggest that unconscious learning during anaesthesia exists but is dependent on surgical stimulation (refer to CP, p. 183). QUESTION 15 Actions that can take the problem from one state to another are known as - - - - -. 1. 2. 3. 4. intermediate states sub-goals operators mental sets Option 3 is correct. Newell and Simon (1972) were early proponents of the information-processing approach to problem solving. They saw problem solving as the searching of a problem space to find the path between the statement of the problem (the initial state) and the solution to the problem (the goal state). This search is governed by operators and is usually accomplished by setting subgoals. The Tower of Hanoi problem has been used to illustrate this process (CP, pp. 372-373). QUESTION 16 According to Tulving (1972, 1985), the defining properties of the experience of episodic memory is that - - - - -. 1. 2. 3. 4. it involves mental time travel it always corresponds to events from our past that actually happened it accesses knowledge about the world that does not have to be tied to any specific personal experience it involves both explicit and implicit memories Option 1 is correct. According to Tulving (1985), the defining property of the experience of episodic memory is that it involves mental time travel—the experience of travelling back in time to reconnect with events that happened in the past. For example, I can travel back in my mind to remember climbing the eiffel Tower and enjoying the panoramic view over Paris. I remember standing on the crowded platform, saying ‘Wow!’ to my friend who was standing next to me. I also remember some of the emotions I was experiencing, and other details such as the sun on my skin, and the expectation of what we were going to see next. In short, when I remember this incident, I feel as if I am reliving it. Tulving describes this experience of mental time travel as self-knowing or remembering (see CP, p. 171). QUESTION 17 The dramatic case of patient H.M. clearly illustrates that - - - - - is crucial for the formation of LTMs. 1. 2. 3. 4. the hippocampus synaptic consolidation vitamin B1 deep processing Option 1 is correct. In 1953, Henry Molaison (known as patient H.M. until his death at the age of 82 in 2008) underwent an experimental procedure designed to eliminate his severe epileptic seizures. The procedure, which involved removal of a large part of H.M.’s medial temporal lobe (including the hippocampus) on both sides of his brain, succeeded in decreasing his seizures but had the unintended outcome of eliminating his ability to form new long-term memories (Corkin, 2002; Scoville & Milner, 1957). H.M.’s short-term memory remained intact, so he could remember what had just happened, but he was unable to transfer any of this informa- tion into long-term memory. H.M.’s case, although tragic for him personally, led to an understanding of the role of the hippocampus in forming new long-term memories. Furthermore, the fact that his short-term memory remained intact suggested that short-term and long-term memories are served by separate brain regions (refer to CP, pp. 168-169). QUESTION 18 According to memory research, studying is most effective if study sessions are - - - - -. 1. 2. 3. 4. short but all on a single day long and all on a single day short and across several days long and across several days Option 3 is correct. Research has shown that memory is better when studying is broken into a number of short sessions, with breaks in between, than when it is concentrated in one long session, even if the total study time is the same. This advantage for short study sessions is called the spacing effect (CP, p. 216). QUESTION 19 Your textbook suggests that a trait that appears to be common to both mental illness and creativity is - - - - -. 1. 2. 3. 4. low pressure tolerance high levels of neuroticism low capacity for divergent thinking latent inhibition Option 4 is correct. One trait that seems to be related to both mental illness and creativity is latent inhibition (LI). Latent inhibition is the capacity to screen out stimuli that are considered irrelevant. everyone has this property; it is one of the mechanisms that keep us from being overwhelmed by the huge number of stimuli that bombard us every day (CP, p. 396). QUESTION 20 A patient suffering from Korsakoff's syndrome would be able to perform which of the following activities without difficulty? 1. 2. 3. 4. Following a story in a book. Remembering what he needs to buy when he gets to the grocery store. Recognising people he has recently met. Identifying a photograph of his childhood home. Option 4 is correct. Korsakoff’s syndrome, which is associated with alcohol abuse, eliminates the ability to form new long-term memories; and thus childhood memories. would not be affected (refer to CP, pp. 180-181). Options 1, 2 and 3 all relate to current or recent events which would be impeded due to Korsakoff syndrome. QUESTION 21 If you are given the information that in order to vote in an election, you must be at least 18 years of age, and that Tim voted in the last election, you can logically conclude that Tim is at least 18 years old. This is an example of using - - - - - reasoning. 1. 2. 3. 4. inductive deductive conjunctive descriptive Option 2 is correct. In deductive reasoning, we determine whether a conclusion logically follows from statements called premises (CP, p. 411). As Tim voted in the last elections, he must have been at least 18 years old as it is a voting criteria. The conclusions thus follows logically from the premise. QUESTION 22 A syllogism is valid if - - - - -. 1. 2. 3. 4. the conclusion follows logically from the two premises the two premises and the conclusion are true there is evidence to support the two premises there is no more than one exception to the conclusion Option 1 is correct. The word valid is often used in everyday conversation to mean that something is true or might be true. For example, saying ‘Susan has a valid point’ could mean that what Susan is saying is true, or possibly that her point should be considered further. However, when used in conjunction with categorical syllogisms, the term validity has a different meaning: a syllogism is valid when the form of the syllogism indicates that its conclusion follows logically from its two premises. Notice that nowhere in this meaning does it say anything about the conclusion being ‘true’ (refer to CP, p. 412) QUESTION 23 The misinformation effect occurs when a person's memory for an event is modified by misleading information presented - - - - -. 1. 2. 3. 4. before the event during the event after the event all of these Option 3 is correct. The misinformation effect refers to a person’s memory for an event being modified by things that happen after the event has occurred (CP, p. 242). QUESTION 24 Linda is sure that if her boyfriend proposes, she will feel elation. This is an example of an - - - - -. 1. 2. 3. 4. expected emotion immediate emotion integral immediate emotion incidental immediate emotion Option 1 is correct. One of the most powerful effects of emotion on decision making involves expected emotions, emotions that people predict they will feel for a particular outcome (refer to CP, p. 427). QUESTION 25 Alice was in her mother-in-law’s kitchen preparing lunch for the family. When she was ready to dish up the soup, she searched all the cupboards and drawers for a ladle but couldn’t find one. She decided to wait until her mother-in-law returned to ask her where the ladle was, leaving the soup in the stove pot. Her mother-in-law later explained that the ladle had been broken, so she told Alice to use a coffee mug to ‘spoon’ the soup into bowls. Alice's ability to solve the ‘dish up the soup’ problem was hindered by which of the following obstacles? 1. 2. 3. 4. Discriminability Perseveration Divergent thinking Functional fixedness Option 4 is correct. One of the major obstacles to problem solving, according to the Gestalt psychologists, is fixation—people’s tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of the problem that keeps them from arriving at a solution. One type of fixation that can work against solving a problem is focusing solely on familiar functions or uses of an object; in this case a coffee mug, this is called functional fixedness (refer to CP, p. 368). QUESTION 26 Which concept below is most closely associated with the evolutionary perspective to solving the Wason four-card problem? 1. 2. 3. 4. Permission schemas Falsification principle Social-exchange theory Availability heuristic Option 3 is correct. As important advocates of the evolutionary perspective on cognition, Cosmides and Tooby (1992) suggested that performance on the Wason card task is governed not by a learned permission schema but by a built-in cognitive programme for detecting cheating. Evolutionary psychologists argue that we can trace many properties of our minds to the evolutionary principles of natural selection. according to natural selection, adaptive characteristics—characteristics that help organisms survive to pass their genes on to the next generation—will, over time, become basic characteristics of the organism. Applying this idea to cognition, it follows that a highly adaptive feature of the mind would, through the course of evolution, become a basic characteristic of the mind. one such characteristic is related to social exchange theory, which states that an important aspect of human behaviour is the ability for two people to cooperate in a way that is beneficial to both people (Cosmides, 1989) (CP , p. 421). QUESTION 27 A - - - - - string led to a restructured representation in the two-string problem. 1. 2. 3. 4. stationary swinging knotted unknotted Option 2 is correct. In the two-string problem, seeing the string swinging from side to side apparently triggered the insight that the pliers could be used as a weight to create a pendulum. In Gestalt terms, the solution to the problem occurred once the participants restructured their representation of how to achieve the solution (get the strings to swing from side to side) and their representation of the function of the pliers (they can be used as a weight to create a pendulum) (CP, p. 370). QUESTION 28 Which of the following provides the best example of functional fixedness? 1. 2. 3. 4. Using a pair of pliers as a paperweight. Using a tire as a swing seat and as a football practice target. Using a lemonade glass as a container for orange juice. Using a wine bottle as a vase. Option 3 is correct. One type of fixation that can work against solving a problem is focusing solely on familiar functions or uses of an object; as in the example above, only using the glass for different juices, this is called functional fixedness (CP, p. 368). QUESTION 29 A patient with impaired episodic memory would most likely have the greatest difficulty in - - - - -. 1. 2. 3. 4. recognising famous people remembering the meaning of some words recalling where to find eating utensils in the kitchen remembering graduating from University Option 4 is correct. Episodic memory refers to memory for events in your life (like Graduating from University), and impairment in episodic memory would thus impact recall of life events such as University graduation (see CP, pp. 16 & 124). QUESTION 30 Imagine yourself walking from your car, bus stop, or home to your first class. Your ability to form such a picture in your mind depends on which of the following components of working memory? 1. 2. 3. 4. the STM recency effect delayed response coding the phonological loop the visuospatial sketch pad Option 4 is correct. The visuospatial sketch pad holds visual and spatial information (for example, car, walking, bus stop etcetera). When you form a picture in your mind or do tasks like solving a puzzle or finding your way around campus, you are using your visuospatial sketch pad (refer to CP, pp. 138-139).