Study Guide - Scientific Study of Behavior and Mental Processes

General Psychology: Study Guide I. II. III. Psychology a. Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. b. Behavior i. Is any action that we can observed and record 1. Examples: writing, talking, crying, kissing, laughing c. Mental processes i. Are the internal, subjective experiences we conclude from behavior 1. Examples: perception, thoughts, feelings, beliefs d. Psychology uses empirical evidence that can be objectively tested and evaluated i. Not to be confused with pseudo psychologies 1. Pseudo = false 2. Examples: horoscopes, psychic powers, self-help Psychology’s Past a. Structuralism: first framework for studying psychology; uses introspection to understand sensation and perception i. Wilhelm Wundt, 1879 in Germany ii. Opened up the 1st psychology laboratory 1. Edward Titchener a. Was a student of Wilhelm, and spread structuralism’s goal of identifying the basic building block of human life. iii. Structuralism died out because it was not useful for studying animals, children, or disorders. b. Functionalism: how the mind functions and allows humans/animals to adapt to their environment. i. William James 1. Opened up the 1st psychology laboratory in the United States 2. Expanded psychology research to include emotions and observable behavior, began psychological testing. a. Example: when you watch a comedy in the theatres it is funnier because the environment is laughing and loud. Psychology Perspectives a. Psychoanalytic/psychodynamic perspective: the unconscious part of the mind has thoughts, memories, desires that lie outside the personal awareness but have strong influence. i. Sigmund Freud studied the unconscious mind b. Behavioral: the belief that the scientific investigation of psychology should be focused only on behavior that you see. i. Ivan Pavlov: worked with classical conditioning (paring two stimuli) 1. He would ring a bell and then give the dog food. Eventually the dog paired the bell and food together so when the dog heard a bell ring he began to salivate. ii. John B. Watson: worked with classical conditioning as well 1. “Little Albert” experiment solidified classical conditioning a. Watson took a baby and would pair seeing a bunny with a loud sound so when Albert saw a bunny he would cry. Also associated the loud noise with rats etc. b. Watson took Albert from the daycare without the parent’s knowledge and consent. iii. B. F. Skinner: worked with operant conditioning (focuses with reinforcement, for every action there is a consequence) 1 1. IV. V. “Skinner Box” where a rat would pull a lever for food. Initially there was no consequence to receiving food so the rat would always pull the lever but eventually the rat would be shocked when he pulled the lever. Then the rat would continue to pull the lever but not nearly as often. c. Humanistic: stresses a person’s capacity for personal growth, freedom to choose his/her destiny, and positive qualities. i. Humanists say that our subjective perceptions of the world are more important than behavior itself. 1. Carl Rodgers 2. Abraham Maslow a. Created the hierarchy of needs (self-actualization is at the top) i. Unable to reach self-actualization until bottom needs are met. d. Cognitive: is focused on the important role of mental processes in how people process information, develop language, solve problems, and think. i. Challenges negative comments and change broken records, e. Positive: is the scientific study of the strengthens and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive. i. Thought that everyone was so focused on the negative, which is important, but wanted to see how people were living a happy and healthy life- prevention. f. Evolutionary: the thought that many behaviors emerged and still exist today because they helped our ancestors survive. i. Natural selection- particular genetic trait gives an organism a reproductive advantage 1. “reproduction of the fittest,” NOT “survival of the fittest.” g. Biopsychosocial: believe that no one perspective on psychology can completely explain the complex human condition. i. Social interaction and the cultural determinates of behavior and mental processes h. Cultural: the study of how cognitive processes vary across different cultures. i. Enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes and traditions that are shared by a large group and are pasted down to generation to generation. 1. Collectivism- strive for the enhancement of the groups, a. Sacrifice for the group b. Seen in eastern cultures 2. Individualism- strive for individual achievements a. Value independence b. Western cultures The Science of Psychology a. Basic research- focuses on fundamental principles and theories to advance core knowledge. b. Applied research- designed to solve practical, real-world problems c. Scientific Method- 6 step process d. Judgmental overconfidence- we tend to think more than we actually do e. False Consensus Effect- the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors. f. Goals of psychology i. Description- what occurred ii. Explanation-why something occurred (examine causes) iii. Prediction- under what conditions is the phenomenon likely to occur again iv. Change/control- how to increase desired outcomes and decrease negative outcomes Three Methods of research a. Descriptive Method (4) 2 VI. i. Naturalistic observation: observe and record behavior in a natural setting, without interference ii. Survey/interview: ask people to report behaviors, opinions and attitudes iii. Case studies: in-depth study of small number of participants iv. Archival research: using previously recorded data b. Correlational Method i. When two variables are related, a change in one is accompanied by a change in the other. ii. Can make predictions about one variable based on known changes in the other. 1. Example: As age increases, happiness increases iii. Correlation Coefficients: 1. The correlation shows the strength of the relationship between two variables 2. Range (-1.00 to +1.00) 3. Positive correlation- high score on one variable is associated with a high score on another variable. a. Example: the more you study, the higher your GPA is 4. Negative correlation- high score on one variable is associated with a low score on another variable. a. Example: the more you miss class, the lower your GPA is 5. Illusionary Correlation- the presence of a correlation does not imply causation a. 3rd hidden variable can impact the degree of the relationship b. Positive correlation with ice cream and shark attacks iv. Experimental: is the only way to prove causation 1. A research method in which the investigator manipulates one or more variables to observe their effect on some behavior or mental process. a. Independent variables- are being manipulated i. Breast milk or formula b. Dependent variables- are observed or measured i. IQ c. Experimental group- is the group that receive the treatment d. Control group- is the group that does not receive the treatment e. Test Bias i. The sample MUST be representative of the population you want to study ii. Random assignment- ensures that change in the DV is due to the IV, not some characteristic of the group 1. Helps minimize pre-existing differences b/w groups iii. Placebo- inactive substance to prevent false positive results from treatment condition iv. Single-blind study: participants don’t know what group they are in v. Double-blind study: participants and researchers both don’t know the group assignments vi. Ethics in psychology 1. Informed consent 2. Protect participants from harm and discomfort 3. Protect confidentiality 4. Provided a complete debriefing 5. Nonhuman animals are used in only 7-8% of psych. studies (rats) a. Rules that protects animals’ rights as well Our Genetic Inheritance a. Behavioral genetics: studies how heredity and the environment affects us 3 b. VII. Genes- control the transmission of traits i. Research shows that most human characteristics are polygenic (meaning more than one gene is responsible for that characteristic) ii. Genes affects our health, personality traits, behavioral habits, sexual orientation, and psychological disorders 1. Genes can influence which political party we side with, our beliefs on the death penalty, unemployment, and abortion. c. Environmental factors, both physical and psychological, also influence our characteristics i. Malnourished children may not reach their full potential genetic height or max. intelligence d. Nature v. Nurture i. Identical twins share all their genes, while fraternal twins share about half of their genes ii. Twins raised together by birth parents share the same environment iii. Identical twins should be more alike than fraternal twins iv. Research on adoptive children can trace characteristics to birth parents v adoptive parents 1. Wired coincidences: dog’s name, jobs, preferences, etc. v. Research shows that many psychological traits run in biological families vi. Heritability- is the percentage of variation in a population attributable to heredity 1. Doesn’t apply to individuals 2. Heritability doesn’t trump environment Neural Bases of Behavior a. Neurons- responsible for receiving, processing, and transmitting electrochemical information b. Glial cells- provide structure, nutrition and other support to neurons c. Cell body- the neuro’s life support system; contains the nucleus d. Dendrite- branching fibers located on the cell body, that receives information from other neurons e. Axon- single, slender, fiber, extending from the cell body carrying outgoing messages to other neurons, muscles, or glands in the form of neural impulses f. Tract-group of axon bundled together that carry information to a specific area (spinal cord tract) g. Myelin sheath- layer of fatty cells that insulated certain axons and speeds up the transmission of the neural impulse h. Synapse- tiny gap between the axon tip of one neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the next neuron i. Axons speak while dendrites listen i. Neural impulses- is the method of communication between neurons i. Neural impulse is an electrical charge that travels down the axon causing the neuron to fire. ii. This electrically charged impulse allows the neuron to communicate with other neurons and is called Action Potential 1. Is an all or nothing, like a light switch iii. The Endocrine system- is a network of glands located throughout the body that secretes hormones into the bloodstream 1. Is a slow chemical communication system, similar to sending a message to everyone in your contact 4 2. VIII. IX. Regulates and maintains long-term body processes a. i.e. growth, sexual characteristics, digestion, and elimination 3. Major gland is the pituitary gland which controls growth and regulates all other glands. (that is why it is known as the master gland) 4. The master of the pituitary gland is the hypothalamus which controls responses to emergencies. (cortisol, epinephrine, and norepinephrine) 5. Pineal Gland: regulates body rhythm and sleep cycles 6. Thyroid: regulates metabolism a. Hyperthyroidism-overactive thyroid, person tends to be excitable and thin b. Hypothyroidism- underactive thyroid, person tends to be inactive and obese iv. Hormones- hormones act as neurotransmitters 1. Neurotransmitter- release of chemical from axon terminals into the synapse when the neural impulse reaches the endo of the axon. Nervous System Organization a. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) i. This is the part of the nervous system that is outside the brain and spinal chord 1. Somatic nervous system: carries sensory information to the brain and instructions back to the muscles 2. Automatic nervous system: responsible for involuntary tasks (i.e. heart rate, digestions and breathing) a. Sympathetic nervous system: arouses you, “fight or flight” b. Parasympathetic nervous system: is that calms you down b. Central Nervous System (CNS) i. Includes all of the neurons in the brain and spinal cord. ii. This system is powerful, but is very fragile iii. Spinal Cord 1. Relays and initiates vital information to other parts of the body 2. Reflexes- automatic behavior in response to stimuli a. Allows immediate action without delay of routing through the brain- does not require input from the brain i. Newborn Reflexes 1. Rooting reflex-stroke cheek 2. Grasping reflex-place finger in infant’s palm 3. Babinski reflex- stroke the sole of a baby’s foot and their toes spread Tour Through the Brain a. Brainstem i. Oldest part of the brain ii. Regulates basic life functions iii. Medulla: regulates heartbeat, breathing, swallowing, and coughing b. Cerebellum: controls motor coordination i. example: standing on one leg ii. athletes have a strong cerebellum c. Limbic system: the interconnected group of forebrain structures with emotions, drives, and memory, as well as major physiological functions. i. Cerebral cortex: the thin surface layer that regulates the most complex behavior 1. Damage to the cerebral cortex can lead to substance abuse, dementia, or suicide (football CTE) 5 X. XI. ii. Hippocampus: forming and retrieving memories iii. Thalamus: Brain’s telephone operator- directs messages to the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla. iv. Hypothalamus: The 4 F’s 1. Fighting, fleeing, feeding, fornication v. Amygdala: controls emotions, like aggression and fear d. Neuroplasticity: the brain’s ability to change and regulate as a result of experience. i. Two reasons: 1. As a result of a learning experience and memory a. Areas in the brain overdevelop due to someone’s occupation i. Hippocampus for taxi drivers 2. As a result of damage to the brain ii. Hemispherectomy: is a surgical procedure in which half of the brain is removed or disconnected. 1. When drugs aren’t helping stop or decrease someone’s seizures iii. Phineas Gage: 1848 railroad worker, was loved by all and accidentally had a rod go through his brain destroying a lot of his frontal lobe. 1. He experienced drastic changes in his personality, he became impatient and rude iv. Each hemisphere controls the other side of the body Stress a. Stress: is the interpretation of specific events as threatening or challenging b. Stressor: trigger or stimulus that induced stress i. Traffic is the stressor and you feel stressed as a result of the traffic c. Chronic stress: continuous state of arousal where demands are perceived as greater than resources available i. Examples: war, poverty, repressive political climate, poor working conditions d. Hassles- minor problems in daily life can add up to be a major stressor e. Burnout- physical, mental, and emotional from persistent hassles f. Frustration- negative emotional state arises from blocked goal g. General Adaptation Syndrome i. Founded by Han Selye: due to his poor handling of rats 1. Han thought he had discovered a new hormone, but it was actually a result of the rats being stressed ii. Bodies are well designed for temporary stress, but poorly prepared for chronic stress iii. Three Phases 1. Alarm 2. Resistance 3. Exhaustion Stress and Illness a. Cortisol is released to help you fight stressor, but chronically high cortisol suppresses the immune system. b. Ulcers: lesions to the lining of the stomach and upper small intestines i. Stress doesn’t cause ulcers ii. Caused by the bacterium (H. pylori) which everyone has, but when stressed you are more susceptible to illness. c. Cancer: occurs when cells divide rapidly, forming a tumor and invading healthy tissue i. Immune system checks the uncontrolled growth by attacking abnormal cells 6 ii. If the immune system is compromised by stress, it is less able to fight cancerous growth Cardiovascular Disorders: causes by cortisol and adrenaline Type A personality: intense, ambitious, driven i. Higher stress levels ii. More interpersonal conflicts f. Type B personality: less competitive, more relaxed, less stressed Health Psychology a. Mindfulness: training consciousness to attend ongoing events b. Social support c. Feel-good do-good phenomenon d. Positive Psychology: the scientific study of strength and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive. i. Focuses on what conditions and processes lead us to optimal health and performance. ii. Be the best that you can be iii. Focusing on the positive feelings. 1. Most people are resilient 2. Social support can help from feeling negative 3. Crisis reveals character 4. People matter 5. Religion matters 6. Work matters 7. Money makes people happy to a certain point and then can make you happier if you spend it on others. e. Good day characteristics i. Feeling autonomous ii. Competent iii. Connected to others 1. Getting fit may have more to do with who you hang out with than what you eat d. e. XII. 7