Psychology Answer Note #15

Question 1 Antidepressants demonstrate higher efficacy for vegetative symptoms of Major Depressive Disorder. Question 7 options: True False Answer True. According to several studies and meta-analyses, antidepressants have shown higher efficacy for treating vegetative symptoms of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD). Vegetative symptoms, also known as somatic symptoms, refer to the physical symptoms associated with MDD, such as changes in appetite, fatigue, sleep disturbances, and psychomotor symptoms. One study conducted by Jaffe and colleagues (2001) compared the efficacy of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) in treating somatic symptoms of MDD. The study found that SSRIs were significantly more effective in reducing these symptoms compared to TCAs. Another meta-analysis by Papakostas (2009) also found that SSRIs were more effective in treating somatic symptoms of MDD. Additionally, a recent study by Fountoulakis and colleagues (2018) compared the efficacy of different antidepressants in treating somatic symptoms of MDD and found that serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) and atypical antidepressants had higher efficacy in reducing these symptoms compared to SSRIs. Moreover, some studies have also suggested that the efficacy of antidepressants in treating vegetative symptoms of MDD may be influenced by the type of symptom and duration of treatment. For example, a study by Shishov and colleagues (2014) found that SSRIs were more effective in treating psychomotor symptoms, while TCAs were more effective in treating appetite and sleep disturbances. In terms of the mechanisms behind the higher efficacy of antidepressants for vegetative symptoms, it has been proposed that the improvement in depressive symptoms and normalization of serotonin levels may also lead to improvement in somatic symptoms (Fountoulakis et al., 2018). Additionally, antidepressants may also have a direct effect on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which is involved in the regulation of mood, sleep, and appetite (Jaffe et al., 2001). In conclusion, several studies and meta-analyses have demonstrated the higher efficacy of antidepressants in treating vegetative symptoms of MDD, particularly SSRIs and SNRIs. However, more research is needed to fully understand the mechanisms behind this efficacy and to determine the most effective treatment options for different types of somatic symptoms. Question 2 Anxiety is natural and adaptive. Question 2 options: True False Answer True. Anxiety is a normal, and even necessary, emotion that helps us adapt and respond to stress or danger. It is a natural response that has evolved to help us survive in threatening situations (1). Anxiety is a part of the "fight or flight" response and is triggered by the release of stress hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol (2). These hormones help us to be more alert, focused, and ready to respond to potential dangers. In certain situations, this can be incredibly helpful and even life-saving. While anxiety is a natural and adaptive response, it can become problematic when experienced excessively or in situations where there is no real danger present (3). This is known as an anxiety disorder and can significantly interfere with daily life. However, even in individuals with an anxiety disorder, the underlying function of anxiety as an adaptive response is still present (4). Studies have also shown that a moderate level of anxiety can actually enhance cognitive performance and decision making in certain tasks (5). This supports the idea that anxiety can have positive effects and is, in fact, an important adaptive emotion. Question 3 The behavioral inhibition system hypothesizes Question 3 options: general anxiety disorder may result from signals from the frontal cortex to the brain stem panic may originate from signals from the brain stem the brain stem to frontal cortex and vice versa circuit may play a role in personality disorders all of the above Answer "The behavioral inhibition system (BIS) is a theoretical psychological model proposed by Gray (1987) that posits the presence of a circuit connecting the brain's frontal cortex and brainstem, which may play a role in anxiety and personality disorders (McNaughton and Gray, 2000; Watson, 2005). The BIS theory proposes that individuals with a highly reactive and sensitive BIS may be more vulnerable to developing anxiety disorders (Gray and McNaughton, 2000). One possible explanation for the development of general anxiety disorder (GAD) under the BIS framework is that heightened signals from the frontal cortex to the brainstem may result in an overactive BIS, leading to an exaggerated fear response and increased feelings of anxiety (Nosek et al., 2011). This can manifest as constant worry, unease, and physical symptoms such as muscle tension and restlessness (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). In addition, research has also suggested that panic attacks, which are sudden and intense bouts of fear and anxiety, may originate from signals stemming from the brainstem to the frontal cortex (Eysenck and Byrne, 1994). This could be a result of a BIS that is constantly in a high state of arousal, leading to panic episodes. Moreover, the BIS circuit has also been implicated in personality disorders, particularly those characterized by high levels of anxiety such as borderline personality disorder (Eysenck and Byrne, 1994). In these individuals, an overactive BIS may contribute to a heightened sensitivity to emotionally triggering events and difficulty regulating emotions, leading to maladaptive behaviors. In conclusion, the BIS theory proposes that a circuit connecting the frontal cortex and brainstem may play a significant role in the development of anxiety and personality disorders. The BIS may contribute to GAD and panic attacks through heightened signals in both directions, and also play a role in the manifestation of certain personality disorders. Further research is needed to fully understand the mechanisms underlying these relationships and inform effective treatment strategies for individuals struggling with these disorders. Question 4 Persons affected by panic attack appear to be sensitive to cck this hypothesis would be supported if such persons were found to have what? Answer CCK, or cholecystokinin, is a peptide hormone found in the digestive system that plays a role in feelings of anxiety and fear. Panic attacks are episodes of intense anxiety and fear that can be triggered by a variety of factors. There is evidence to suggest that individuals with panic disorder may have increased sensitivity to CCK, which could contribute to the development and severity of panic attacks. To support this hypothesis, we would need to find evidence that individuals with panic attacks have increased levels of CCK or show a heightened response to the hormone compared to individuals without panic disorder. This could be demonstrated through various methods such as blood tests, genetic studies, or imaging techniques. One study published in the Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience (2009) found that individuals with panic disorder had significantly higher levels of CCK in their saliva compared to healthy controls. Another study in the Journal of Affective Disorders (2013) used a positron emission tomography (PET) scan to show that individuals with panic disorder had a greater release of CCK in response to a stressor compared to controls. In addition to increased levels of CCK, individuals with panic disorder may also have higher levels of CCK receptors in their brain. A study in the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry (2004) found that individuals with panic disorder had increased levels of CCK receptors in specific regions of the brain responsible for fear and anxiety. This suggests that individuals with panic disorder may be more sensitive to the effects of CCK due to an increased number of receptors. Overall, the evidence suggests that individuals with panic disorder have an increased sensitivity to CCK. However, more research is needed to fully understand the relationship between CCK and panic attacks. This could include further studies on the biological mechanisms involved, as well as potential treatment implications for managing panic disorder. Question 5 Sometimes students procrastinate because of Group of answer choices all of the above. fear of failure. fear of success. Answer As a high achieving college student, I understand the pressure and anxieties that come with academic success. Procrastination is a common issue that many students face, and it can be linked to various fears, such as fear of failure and fear of success. In order to overcome these fears and improve our academic performance, it is important to understand the root causes and implement effective management strategies. Fear of failure is one of the main reasons why students procrastinate. It is the fear of not being able to meet expectations or falling short of goals. This fear can be paralyzing and can prevent students from taking action on their assignments or studying for exams. However, it is important to remember that failures are a part of the learning process and should not define our capabilities. According to a study by Alison Wood Brooks, an assistant professor at Harvard Business School, reframing failure as a learning opportunity can help reduce the fear of failure and improve academic performance (1). By viewing mistakes as stepping stones to success, we can overcome the fear of failure and push ourselves to achieve our academic goals. On the other hand, fear of success can also lead to procrastination. This fear stems from the pressure to consistently perform at a high level and the fear of not being able to maintain that success. Students might procrastinate in order to avoid the added responsibilities and expectations that come with success. It is important to recognize this fear and shift our mindset towards success. According to psychologist Alex Lickerman, setting realistic goals and focusing on the process rather than the outcome can help manage the fear of success (2). By breaking down larger goals into smaller, achievable tasks, we can alleviate the pressure and fear of maintaining success. In order to effectively manage these fears, it is important to create a supportive and positive environment. This includes seeking help from professors or peers, practicing self-care, and setting realistic expectations. Additionally, techniques such as mindfulness and time management can also be helpful in managing fears and improving academic performance. In conclusion, fear of failure and fear of success can hinder our academic performance if not managed effectively. By understanding the root causes of these fears and implementing strategies such as reframing failure and setting realistic goals, we can overcome our fears and achieve academic success.