The Self, Identity, and Personality

The Self, Identity, and Personality Self-Understanding and Understanding Others ○ Self-understanding: the cognitive representation of the self, the substance of self-conceptions. ■ Based, in part, on roles and membership categories. ■ Provides the underpinnings for identity development. Self-Understanding and Understanding Others in Infancy ○ Rudimentary form of self-recognition appears as early as 3 months. ○ Mirror technique is one strategy for testing infants’ visual self-recognition. ■ With rouge on the nose, increased nose-touching means that the infant recognizes the self in the mirror. ■ Signs of self-recognition appear at 15 to 18 months. ■ Infants develop a conscious awareness of their bodies by their second year. ○ Interactions support development of the self. Early Childhood: Self-Understanding ○ Main characteristics of self-understanding in young children: ■ Confusion of self, mind, and body. ■ Concrete descriptions. ■ Physical descriptions. ■ Active descriptions. ■ Unrealistic positive overestimations. ● “I’m never scared” ○ There are individual variations; and some children are vulnerable to negative self-attributions. Middle and Late Childhood: Understanding Others ○ Perspective taking: the ability to assume another person’s perspective and understand his or her thoughts and feelings. ■ Thought to be especially important in determining whether children will develop prosocial or antisocial attitudes and behaviors. ■ Executive functions are at work, including cognitive inhibition and cognitive flexibility. ○ In middle and late childhood, children become increasingly skeptical of some sources of information about psychological traits. Adolescence: Self-Understanding ○ Developments in adolescent self-understanding: ■ Begin thinking in more abstract and idealistic ways. ■ Increasingly likely to be self-conscious. ■ Become aware of potential contradictions between their differentiated selves. ■ Self-understanding fluctuates across situations and time. ■ Sense of real and ideal selves develops further. ● ● ● ● ● ■ Self-understanding becomes more integrative. ○ Possible selves: what adolescents hope to be and what they dread becoming. Adolescence: Understanding Others ○ Adolescent development includes perceiving others’ traits, understanding multiple perspectives, and monitoring their social world. ○ Adolescents come to understand that others are complex and have public and private faces. ○ Cognitive monitoring is an important activity in metacognition that becomes helpful in social situations. Adulthood: Self-Awareness ○ Self-awareness becomes more important in early adulthood. ■ Degree to which a young adult is aware of his or her psychological makeup, including strengths and weaknesses. ○ Many individuals do not have a good awareness of their psychological makeup and skills, as well as the causes of their weaknesses. ○ Early adulthood is a time when individuals can benefit considerably from addressing weaknesses. Adulthood: Possible Selves ○ Adults in their twenties mention many possible selves they would like to and might become. ○ As individuals age, they often describe fewer possible selves and portray them in more realistic ways. ■ By middle age, adults frequently describe possible selves in areas of their lives in which they have already performed. ■ Older adults are more concerned with maintaining what they have, avoiding health problems and dependency. ○ Many individuals continue to revise and adapt their possible selves. Adulthood: Life Review ○ Life review involves looking back at one’s life experiences, evaluating them, interpreting them, and often reinterpreting them. ■ Identifying and reflecting on the positive aspects and on the regrets. ○ Reminiscence therapy: discussion of past activities and experiences with another individual or a group. ■ Instrumental reminiscence therapy. ■ Attachment-focused reminiscence therapy. Self-Esteem and Self-Concept ○ Self-esteem: global evaluations of the self. ■ Also referred to as self-worth or self-image. ○ Self-concept: domain-specific evaluations of the self. ■ Academic, athletic, appearance, etc. ○ Foundations of self-esteem and self-concept emerge from the quality of parentchild interactions in infancy and early childhood. ● ● ● Issues in Self-Esteem ○ Low self-esteem has negative consequences in many areas of life. ■ Implicated in overweight, obesity, anxiety, depression, suicide, and delinquency. ■ For youths with low self-esteem, lower life satisfaction at 30. ○ High self-esteem does not lead directly to good academic performance; and correlations with adult job performance vary greatly. ○ Self-esteem is strongly related to happiness. ○ Self-esteem is related to perceived physical appearance. ■ Not confined to adolescence. ○ Individuals with low self-esteem are more likely to report feeling depressed. ○ Low self-esteem in adolescence foreshadows adjustment and competence in adulthood. ○ Note research on self-esteem is correlational. ■ Correlation does not equal causation. Developmental Changes in Self-Esteem ○ Self-esteem fluctuates across the life span. ■ One large cross-sectional study suggests it decreases in adolescence, increases in the twenties, levels off in the thirties, rises in the fifties and sixties, and drops off in seventies and eighties. ○ In most age periods, the self-esteem of males is higher than the self-esteem of females. Self-Esteem Across the Life Span ○ ● One cross-sectional study found that self-esteem was high in childhood, dropped in adolescence, increased through early and middle adulthood, then dropped in the seventies and eighties (Robins & others, 2002). More than 300,000 individuals were asked the extent to which they have high self-esteem on a 5point scale, with 5 being “Strongly Agree” and 1 being “Strongly Disagree.” Developmental Changes in Self-Esteem: Childhood and Adolescence ○ ○ ● ● ● ● ● Accuracy of self-evaluations increases across the elementary school years. Adolescents have long been described as having low self-esteem, but most have a positive self-image. ■ Gender differences in self-esteem emerge by early adolescence. ■ Children enter first grade with roughly equivalent levels, but by the middle school years, girls’ self-esteem is slightly lower. ○ Inflated praise may cause those with low self-esteem to avoid learning from important challenges. Developmental Changes in Self-Esteem: Adulthood ○ Many older adults do not interpret “losses” as negatively and don’t become as emotionally upset. ■ Older adults compare themselves with other older adults. ○ Some aspects of their lives require continued support for self-esteem. ■ Older adults’ self-esteem benefits when they know they are accepted by others. ○ Deteriorating physical health and negative societal attitudes may explain the decline in self-esteem for some older adults. Strategies for Increasing Self-Esteem ○ Identify the causes of low self-esteem and the domains of competence important to the self. ○ Provide emotional support and opportunities for social approval. ○ Take responsibility for one’s own self-esteem. ○ Achieve goals. ○ Develop effective coping strategies. Self-Regulation ○ Self-regulation involves the ability to control one’s behavior without having to rely on others’ help. ■ Includes self-generation and cognitive monitoring of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in order to reach a goal. ○ Individuals who engage in self-regulation are better achievers and are more satisfied with their lives. ■ As compared with those who let external factors dominate their lives. Self-Regulation: Infancy and Early Childhood ○ Emotion regulation is an important aspect of the overall development of selfregulation. ○ At about 12 to 18 months of age, infants depend on caregivers for signals about acceptable behaviors. ○ At 2 to 3 years, they begin to comply with a caregiver’s expectations in the absence of external monitoring. ○ At young ages there are clear limitations on Self-regulation. ■ Given a strong stimulus, toddlers ignore safety and warnings. Self-Regulation: Middle/Late Childhood and Adolescence ○ ● ● Increased capacity for self-regulation is important during middle and late childhood. ■ Deliberate attempts to manage one’s own behavior, emotions, and thoughts. ■ Leads to increased social competence and achievement. ○ Advanced cognitive skills, increased introspection, and greater independence of adolescents may lead to greater self-control. ■ Linked to developmental advances in the prefrontal cortex. ■ Effortful control is a strong predictor of educational attainment. Self-Regulation: Adulthood ○ Among adults, higher levels of self-control are linked to better health and adjustment. ○ Self-control increases in early adulthood and into the middle adult years. ○ Although aware of age-related losses, most older adults still effectively maintain a sense of self-control. ■ Plays an important role in older adults’ quality of life, including lower levels of depression and obesity. ○ Selective optimization with compensation theory links successful aging with the ability to produce new resources and allocate them effectively to tasks. ■ Selection—reduced capacity and loss of functioning require a reduction of performance in most life domains. ■ Optimization—maintaining performance in some areas is possible through continued practice and the use of new technologies. ■ Compensation—relevant when life tasks require a capacity beyond the older adult’s current potential. ● Especially in cases of high mental or physical demand. ○ For many, it is not just the attainment of goals but the attainment of meaningful goals that makes life satisfying. ■ Younger adults are more likely to assess their well-being in terms of accomplishments and careers. ■ Older adults are more likely to link well-being with good health and the ability to accept change. ■ Emotion-related goals become increasingly important. Identity ○ What is identity? ■ Vocational/career identity. ■ Political identity. ■ Religious identity. ■ Relationship identity. ■ Achievement, intellectual identity. ■ Sexuality and gender. ■ Cultural/ethnic identity. ■ Interests. ● ● ● ● ● ■ Personality. ■ Physical identity. Identity: Erikson’s View ○ Adolescents go through the identity versus identity confusion (Stage 5, ages 12-18) developmental stage. ■ Faced with deciding who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life—questions that arise throughout life but are especially important in adolescence. ○ Search for an identity is aided by a psychosocial moratorium: the gap between childhood security and adult autonomy. ○ Adolescents who do not successfully resolve this crisis can suffer from identity confusion. Some Contemporary Thoughts on Identity ○ Identity development is a lengthy process. ■ Often more gradual and less of a crisis than Erikson suggested. ■ Individuals with healthy identities are flexible and adaptive. ○ At a minimum, identity formation involves commitment to a vocational direction, an ideological stance, and a sexual orientation. ○ Narrative approach—asking people to tell and evaluate their life stories—is used by researchers. ■ Narrative identities: the stories people construct and tell in order to define who they are for themselves and others. Developmental Changes in Identity ○ Researchers have developed a consensus that key changes in identity are most likely to take place in emerging adulthood, not adolescence. ■ Many young adolescents are identity diffused. ■ Further exploration takes place during the college years. ○ Increased complexity in reasoning along with new experiences may stimulate individuals to integrate identity dimensions to a greater degree. Identity and Social Contexts: Family Processes ○ Parents are important in adolescent identity development. ■ Poor communication with mothers and persistent conflict with friends are linked to less positive identity development. ○ Family atmosphere that promotes individuality and connectedness is important. ■ Individuality: self-assertion and separateness. ● Having and communicating a point of view; and able to express how one is different from others. ■ Connectedness: mutuality and permeability. ● Respect for and openness to others’ views. Identity and Social Contexts: Peer/Romantic Relationships ○ ● ● ● Capacity to explore one’s identity in adolescence and emerging adulthood is linked to the quality of friendships and romantic relationships. ■ Friends often serve as a safe context for exploring identity-related experiences. ■ Two individuals in a romantic relationship are both in the process of constructing their own identities, each providing the other with context. Identity and Social Contexts: The Digital Environment ○ Digital world has introduced new ways for youth to express and explore their identity. ■ Especially social media platforms. ○ Adolescents and emerging adults often cast themselves as positively as they can on their digital devices. ○ Online world provides opportunities for both expressing identity and getting feedback about it. Personality ○ Trait theories state that personality consists of broad dispositions that produce characteristic responses. ○ One trait theory: the Big Five factors of personality, which relate to important aspects of a person’s life. ■ Openness to experience. ■ Conscientiousness. ■ Extraversion. ■ Agreeableness. ■ Neuroticism. ○ Another important personality characteristic is optimism: having a positive outlook on the future and minimizing problems. ■ Often referred to as a style of thinking. ■ In adolescents, an optimistic style of thinking is linked to lower risk of depressive symptoms and suicidal thoughts. ■ Research suggests optimism is linked to better adjustment, better health, and increased longevity. ○ Most psychologists believe personality is a product of trait-situation interaction— that is, context or environment is also important. Big Five Factors of Personality ○ Each of the broad super traits encompasses more narrow traits and characteristics. Use the acronym OCEAN to remember the Big Five personality ● ● ● ● factors (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism). Views on Adult Personality Development: The Stage-Crisis View ○ Like Erikson’s theory, Levinson’s Seasons of a Man’s Life approach is a stagecrisis view of development. ■ Developmental tasks must be mastered at each stage. ■ End of teens should see a transition from dependence to independence, marked by formation of a dream. ■ Twenties, a novice phase of adult development; then another transition with the determination of goals. ■ Thirties, a focus on family and career, near the end of which, BOOM: Becoming One’s Own Man. ■ By age 40, a stable career; and a midlife transition. ○ According to Levinson, the midlife transition lasts about 5 years (age 40 to 45) and involves coming to grips with key conflicts: ■ Being young versus being old. ■ Being destructive versus being constructive. ■ Being masculine versus being feminine. ■ Being attached to others versus being separated from them. ○ Levinson maintains the stages, transitions, and crises also hold for females. Views on Adult Personality Development: Midlife Crises ○ Levinson views midlife as a crisis. ■ Middle-aged adult is suspended between past and future, trying to cope with the gap to ensure life’s continuity. ○ Vaillant concludes that the forties are instead a decade of reassessing and recording the truth about the adolescent and adulthood years. ■ Only a minority of adults experience a crisis. ○ Emotional well-being does not decrease significantly. ■ Some psychological gains are experienced. Views on Adult Personality Development: Individual Variations ○ Stage theories focus on the universals and do not adequately address individual variations. ○ Research suggests middle-aged adults individually interpret, shape, alter, and give meaning to their lives. ○ Some individuals experience a crisis in some contexts but not in others. ■ Turmoil and stress may characterize one area of a person’s life while things are going smoothly in another. Views on Adult Personality Development: The Life-Events Approach ○ Contemporary life-events approach emphasizes that how life events influence ● ● development depends not only on the event but also on: ■ Mediating factors (for example, physical health). ■ Individual’s adaptation to the life event. ■ Life-stage context. ■ Sociohistorical context. ○ Drawbacks to this approach: ■ Too much emphasis on change, not enough on stability. ■ Daily experiences, rather than major life events, can be the primary sources of stress. Generativity ○ Erikson argues middle-aged adults face the issue of generativity versus stagnation. (Stage 7, middle age, 40-65) ■ Generativity is an adult’s desire to leave a legacy. ■ Stagnation develops when an individual senses he or she has done nothing for the next generation. ■ Studies confirm middle-aged adults are especially concerned about generativity. ○ Generativity can be developed in a number of ways. ■ May take the form of biological generativity, parental generativity, work generativity, and cultural generativity. Personality: Stability and Change ○ Ongoing study of the Big Five personality factors has found a great deal of stability across the adult years. ○ Other research indicates greater developmental changes. ■ Emotional stability, extraversion, openness, and agreeableness are lower in early adulthood, peak at 40 to 60 years, and decrease in late adulthood. ■ Conscientiousness shows a continuous increase from early adulthood to late adulthood. ○ Most research suggests the greatest change occurs in early adulthood. ○ Conclusions: ■ Personality traits continue to change during the adult years, even into late adulthood. ● Most change occurs during early adulthood. ● More stability is shown in personality traits after midlife. ■ Cumulative personality model: with time and age, people become more adept at interacting with their environment in ways that promote increased stability in personality. ■ Personality changes that occur across adulthood move in a positive direction, toward social maturity—“more confident, warm, responsible, and calm”