Classical Conditioning and Key Concepts in Behavioral Psychology

Chapter 6 Chapter 7 - - Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus. Pavlov was a prominent Russian physiologist who won the Nobel Prize–winning research on digestion. He was studying the role of saliva in the digestive processes of dogs The unconditioned stimulus (US) is a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning. The unconditioned response (UR) is an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning. The conditioned response (CR) is a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning. Evaluative conditioning refers to changes in the liking of a stimulus that result from pairing that stimulus with other positive or negative stimuli. extinction, the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency. Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of non exposure to the conditioned stimulus. renewal effect—if a response is extinguished in a different environment than it was acquired, the extinguished response will reappear if the animal is returned to the original environment where acquisition took place. Stimulus generalization occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus responds in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus Stimulus discrimination is just the opposite of stimulus generalization. his is a demonstration of higher-order conditioning, in which a conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus. operant conditioning is a form of learning in which voluntary responses come to be controlled by their consequences. Reinforcement occurs when an event following a response increases an organism’s tendency to make that response The key dependent variable in most research on operant conditioning is the subjects’ response rate shaping —the reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response.(Operant conditioning) In operant conditioning, extinction refers to the gradual weakening and disappearance of a response tendency because the response is no longer followed by reinforcement. Discriminative stimuli are cues that influence operant behavior by indicating the probable consequences (reinforcement or nonreinforcement) of a response. Process and Definition Intermittent reinforcement occurs when a designated response is reinforced only some of the time. variable schedules tend to generate steadier response rates and greater resistance to extinction than their fixed counterparts do. Thus, punishment and negative reinforcement are opposite procedures that yield opposite effects on behavior latent learning—learning that is not apparent from behavior when it first occurs Observational learning occurs when an organism’s response is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models. Encoding involves forming a memory code. For example, when you form a memory code for a word, you might emphasize how it looks, how it sounds, or what it means Storage involves maintaining encoded information in memory over time. Retrieval involves recovering information from memory stores. Research issues concerned with retrieval include the study of how people search memory and why some retrieval strategies are more effective than others Attention involves focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events. For example, Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart (1972) argue that different rates of forgetting occur because some methods of encoding create more durable memory codes than others do. Structural encoding is relatively shallow processing that emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus. For example, if words are flashed on a screen, structural encoding registers such things as how the words are printed (capital, lowercase, and so on) or their length Further analysis may result in phonemic encoding, which emphasizes what a word sounds like. Phonemic encoding involves naming or saying the words. Finally, semantic encoding emphasizes the meaning of verbal input; it involves thinking about the objects and actions the words represent. Levels-of-processing theory proposes that deeper levels of processing result in longer-lasting memory codes. Semantic encoding can often be enhanced through a process called elaboration—the linking of a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding Allan Paivio (1986) points out that it is easier to form images of concrete objects than of abstract concepts His dual-coding theory holds that memory is enhanced by forming both semantic and visual codes since either can lead to recall. Sensory memory preserves information in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second. Sensory memory allows the sensation of a visual pattern, sound, or touch to linger for a brief moment after the sensory stimulation is over. Short-term memory (STM) is a limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for up to about 20 seconds. rehearsal—the process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about information. short-term memory is 4 plus or minus 1 A chunk is a group of familiar stimuli stored as a single unit. he first component is the phonological loop, which represented all of short-term memory in earlier models. This component is at work when you use recitation to temporarily hold onto a password or phone number. The second component in working memory is a visuospatial sketchpad that permits people to temporarily hold and manipulate visual images. This component is at work when you try to mentally rearrange the furniture in your bedroom. The third component is the central executive system. It controls the deployment of attention, switching the focus of attention and dividing attention, as needed. The fourth component is the episodic buffer, a temporary, limited capacity store that allows the various components of working memory to integrate information and that serves as an interface between working memory and long-term memory. Long-term memory (LTM) is an unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time. At first glance, flashbulb memories, which are thought to be unusually vivid and detailed recollections of the circumstances in which one learned of momentous public events, provide striking examples of seemingly permanent storage A conceptual hierarchy is a multilevel classification system based on common properties among items A schema is an organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience with the object or event. A semantic network consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts. tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon—the temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it’s just out of reach. The misinformation effect occurs when participants’ recall of an event they witnessed is altered by introducing misleading post-event information. source monitoring—the process of making inferences about the origins of memories A source-monitoring error occurs when a memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source. For example, you might attribute something that your roommate said to your psychology professor, invented nonsense syllables—consonant-vowel-consonant arrangements that do not correspond to words (such as BAF, XOF, VIR, and MEQ). This diagram, called a forgetting curve, graphs retention and forgetting over time. In these studies, the retention interval is the length of time between the presentation of materials to be remembered and the measurement of forgetting. Who is the current U.S. secretary of state? What movie won the Academy Award for best picture last year? These questions involve recall measures of retention. A recall measure requires participants to reproduce information on their own without any cues. A recognition measure of retention requires participants to select previously learned information from an array of options. A relearning measure of retention requires a participant to memorize information a second time to determine how much time or effort is saved by having learned it before. To use this method, a researcher measures how much time (or how many practice trials) a person needs in order to memorize something. People usually assume that they know what a penny looks like. However, most people have actually failed to encode this information. Pseudoforgetting is usually attributable to lack of attention. For example, if you’re distracted while you read your textbooks, you may be doing little more than saying the words to yourself. This is an example of phonemic encoding Research has shown that forgetting depends not on the amount of time that has passed since learning, but on the amount, complexity, and type of information that subjects have had to absorb during that period of time. Interference theory proposes that people forget information because of competition from other material. Retroactive interference occurs when new information impairs the retention of previously learned information. proactive interference occurs when previously learned information interferes with the retention of new information. he encoding specificity principle states that the value of a retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to the memory code. n Freudian theory, repression refers to keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious Ineffective encoding due to lack of attention. Ellen can’t recall the reasons for the Webster-Ashburton Treaty because she was daydreaming when it was discussed in history class. Proactive interference (previous learning of Justin Timberlake’s name interferes with new learning).Ray’s new assistant in the shipping department is named Jason Timberlake. Ray keeps calling him Justin, mixing him up with the singer Justin Timberlake. Retroactive interference (new learning of sociology interferes with older learning of history). - - - Tania studied history on Sunday morning and sociology on Sunday evening. It’s Monday, and she’s struggling with her history test because she keeps mixing up prominent historians with influential sociologists. In retrograde amnesia, a person loses memories for events that occurred prior to the injury. For example, a 25-year-old gymnast who sustains a head trauma might find 3 years, 7 years, or perhaps her entire lifetime erased. In anterograde amnesia, a person loses memories for events that occur after the injury. For instance, after her accident, the injured gymnast might experience impaired ability to remember people she meets, where she has parked her car, and so on. H.M.’s memory losses were originally attributed to the removal of his hippocampus Consolidation is a hypothetical process involving the gradual conversion of new, unstable memories into stable, durable memory codes stored in long-term memory he declarative memory system handles factual information. It contains recollections of words, definitions, names, dates, faces, events, concepts, and ideas The nondeclarative memory system houses memory for actions, skills, conditioned responses, and emotional memories. It contains procedural memories of how to execute such actions as riding a bike, typing, and tying one’s shoes. The episodic memory system is made up of chronological, or temporally dated, recollections of personal experiences. The semantic memory system contains general knowledge that is not tied to the time when the information was learned. Semantic memory contains information such as Christmas is December 25th, dogs have four legs, the U.S. Supreme Court has nine justices, and Phoenix is located in Arizona. Retrospective memory involves remembering events from the past or previously learned information. Retrospective memory is at work when you try to remember who won the Super Bowl last year or when you reminisce about your high school days. Prospective memory involves remembering to perform actions in the future. Examples of prospective memory tasks include remembering to bring your umbrella, to walk the dog, to call someone, or to grab the tickets for the big game Declarative memory.Memory for factual information Sensory memory.The preservation of information in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second Nondeclarative memory.The repository of memories for actions, skills, operations, and conditioned responses Semantic memory.General knowledge that is not tied to the time when the information was learned Prospective memory.Remembering to perform future actions Short-term memory.A limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for around 20 seconds The behaviorist approach to language was first outlined by B. F. Skinner in his book Verbal Behavior (1957). He argued that children learn language the same way they learn everything else: through imitation, reinforcement, and other established principles of conditioning language acquisition device (LAD) —an innate mechanism or process that facilitates the learning of language. linguistic relativity, the hypothesis that one’s language determines the nature of one’s thought. Whorf speculated that different languages lead people to view the world differently. Problems of inducing structure. The person must discover the relations among the parts of the problem. Problems of arrangement. The person must arrange the parts in a way that satisfies some criterion. Problems of transformation. The person must carry out a sequence of transformations in order to reach a specific goal functional fixedness —the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use. A mental set exists when people persist in using problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past. Insight occurs when people suddenly discover the correct solution to a problem after struggling with it for a while A heuristic is a guiding principle or “rule of thumb” used in solving problems or making decisions. Heuristics are often useful, but they don’t guarantee success. An incubation effect occurs when new solutions surface for a previously unsolved problem after a period of not consciously thinking about the problem. If it didn’t occur to you that the matchbox could be converted from a container to a platform, this illustrates.Functional fixedness. While working on the problem, if you thought to yourself, “How can I create a platform attached to the wall?Forming subgoals. If it occurred to you suddenly that the matchbox could be used as a platform, this realization would be an example of. Insight if you had a hunch that there might be some similarity between this problem and the string problem in Figure 8.2 (the similarity is the novel use of an object), your hunch would illustrate the heuristic of Searching for analogies In terms of Greeno’s three types of problems, the candle problem is a(n) Arrangement problem. Thus, Simon’s theory of bounded rationality asserts that people tend to use simple strategies in decision making that focus on only a few facets of available options and often result in “irrational” decisions that are less than optimal The availability heuristic involves basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease with which relevant instances come to mind. For example, you may estimate the divorce rate by recalling the number of divorces among your friends’ parents the representativeness heuristic involves basing the estimated probability of an event on how similar it is to the typical prototype of that event. The conjunction fallacy occurs when people estimate that the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening alone. Availability heuristic leads to overestimation of the improbable. Representativeness heuristic leads to inaccurate probability estimate. The prenatal period extends from conception to birth, usually encompassing nine months of pregnancy. Significant development occurs before birth. In fact, development during the prenatal period is remarkably rapid. The germinal stage is the first phase of prenatal development, encompassing the first 2 weeks after conception. This brief stage begins when a zygote is created through fertilization. Within 36 hours, rapid cell division begins. The placenta is a structure that allows oxygen and nutrients to pass into the fetus from the mother’s bloodstream, and bodily wastes to pass out to the mother. The embryonic stage is the second stage of prenatal development, lasting from 2 weeks until the end of the second month. During this stage, most of the vital organs and bodily systems begin to form in the developing organism, which is now called an embryo. he fetal stage is the third stage of prenatal development, lasting from 2 months through birth. apid bodily growth, as muscles and bones begin to form Motor development refers to the progression of muscular coordination required for physical activities Maturation is development that reflects the gradual unfolding of one’s genetic blueprint. . Developmental norms indicate the typical (median) age at which individuals display various behaviors and abilities. Fast mapping is the process by which children map a word onto an underlying concept after only one exposure. An overextension occurs when a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a wider set of objects or actions than it is meant to. underextensions, which occur when a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a narrower set of objects or actions than it is meant to. Cognitive development refers to transitions in youngsters’ patterns of thinking, including reasoning, remembering, and problem solving. Conservation is Piaget’s term for the awareness that physical quantities remain constant in spite of changes in their shape or appearance. Centration is the tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem, neglecting other important aspects. Irreversibility is the inability to envision reversing an action. Egocentrism in thinking is characterized by a limited ability to share another person’s viewpoint. The first stage in Piaget’s theory is the sensorimotor period, lasting from birth to about age 2. Piaget called this stage sensorimotor because infants are developing the ability to coordinate their sensory input with their motor actions. Object permanence develops when a child recognizes that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer visible. The preoperational period extends roughly from ages 2 to 7. Although progress in symbolic thought continues, Piaget emphasized the shortcomings in preoperational thought. The concrete operational period usually lasts from about ages 7 to 11. Piaget called this stage concrete operations because children can perform operations only on images of tangible objects and actual events. formal operational period, which is supposed to begin around 11 years of age. In this stage, children begin to apply their operations to abstract concepts in addition to concrete objects. Animism is characteristic of the preoperational period..On seeing a glass lying on its side, Sammy says, “Look, the glass is tired. It’s taking a nap.” Mastery of hierarchical classification occurs during the concrete operational period.Maria is told that a farmer has nine cows and six horses. The teacher asks, “Does the farmer have more cows or more animals?” Maria answers, “More animals.” Lack of object permanence is characteristic of the sensorimotor period. Commitment to personal ethics is characteristic of postconventional reasoning. She should do the research. Although it’s wrong to kill, there’s a greater good that can be realized through the research. Concern about approval of others is characteristic of conventional reasoning.She shouldn’t do the research because people will think that she’s a hypocrite and condemn her.