Development Across the Life Span

Development Across the Life Span Human Development • scientific study of changes in people from conception until death • changes that occur because of age, biology, and environment Research Designs • longitudinal designs: one participant or group of participants is studied over a period of time - same participants are studied at various ages • four main areas of development 1. cognitive 2. social 3. moral 4. physical • advantage: determine age-related differences • disadvantage: lots of time and money Cross-Sectional Study compared directly to one another to determine age-related differences Cross-Sequential Study • combination of longitudinal and cross-sectional design • participants of various ages are compared at several points in time, to determine both age related differences and age-related changes Nature (Heredity) v.s. Nurture (Environment) • nature is the influence of inherited characteristics on personality, physical growth, and social interactions • nurture is environmental influence that includes parenting styles, physical surroundings, economic factors, and anything that does not come from within • most developmental psychologists agree that development is a product of an interaction between nature and nurture The Basic Building Blocks of Development • in a DNA molecule… - the two strands making up the sides of the “twisted ladder” are composed are sugars & phosphates - the “rungs” of the ladder that link the two strands are amines • amines contain the genetic codes for building the protein that make up organic life • • • • • genetics: science of inherited traits DNA: special molecule that contains the genetic material of the organism gene: the section of DNA having the same arrangement of chemical elements chromosome: tightly wound strand of genetic material or DNA recessive: referring to a gene that only influences the expression of a trait when paired with an identical gene • dominant: referring to a gene that actively controls the expression of a trait Prenatal Development • from conception to the birth of the baby is a period of approximately 9 months, during which a single cell becomes a baby Fertilization, the Zygote, and Twinning • ovum: egg • fertilization: uniting of egg and sperm • zygote: cell resulting from egg-cell union • zygote divides into many cells, eventually forming fetus • mitosis: division process (always occurs in multiples) • identical twins- comes from one fertilized egg (monozygotic) • fraternal twins- two eggs are fertilized (dizygotic) Periods of Pregnancy • the three periods of pregnancy are the germinal, the embryonic, and the fetal period • germinal stage: first 2 weeks after fertilization during which the zygote moves down to the uterus and begins to implant in the lining • embryonic stage: the period from 2 to o8 weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism develop (very important stage) • fetal period: the time from about 8 weeks after conception until the birth of the baby Common Teratogens • any substance that can cause a birth defect: - rubella: blindness, deafness, heart defects, brain damage - marijuana: irritability, nervousness, tremors; infant is easily disturbed/startled - cocaine: decreased height, low birth weight, respiratory problems, seizures, learning difficulties; infant is difficult to soothe - alcohol: fetal alcohol syndrome (intellectual disability, delayed growth, facial malformations), learning difficulties, smaller than normal head - nicotine: miscarriage, low birth weight, still birth, short stature, intellectual disability, learning disability - mercury: intellectual disability, blindness - syphilis: intellectual disability, deafness, meningitis - caffeine: miscarriage, low birth weight - radiation: higher incidence of cancers, physical deformities - high water temperatures: increased chance of neural tube defects Infancy and Childhood Development Physical Development: Reflexes • infants have a set of innate involuntary behavior patterns reflexes • five innate (born with) reflexes for survival: 1. stepping 2. grasping 3. moro (startle) 4. sucking 5. rooting • nervous system and healthy reflexes- reflexes used to check the health of infants nervous system • four critical areas of adjustment: respiration digestion circulation temperature Physical Development: Sensory Development • touch, taste, smell: well developed - taste- sweet preference at birth, at 4 months: salty • hearing: functional but not fully developed - can hear low pitch first • vision: least developed; rods (black and white) are functional, cones (color) take about 6 months to fully develop - 7-10 inches… which is why mother gets so close to the babies face? Physical Development: Motor Milestones • some of the major physical milestones of infancy: - 2 to 4 months: raising head and chest - 6 to 7 months: sitting without support - 7 to 8 months: crawling - 8 to 18 months: walking Cognitive Development: Piaget’s Stage Theory • children form mental concepts or schemes as they experience new stations and events. there are four stages of cognitive development from infancy to adolescence • Piaget: children are not “little adults” so, think quite differently about the world - schemes- mental concepts - assimilation- integrate old/new - accommodation- altering schemes • four stages: - sensorimotor- sensory & physical - preoperational- language (becomes a tool) - concrete operational- logic (thought processes) - formal operations- abstract (concepts that are understood.. hypothetical thinking) Stage 1: Sensorimotor • birth to 2 years • children explore using senses - ex: grasping, pushing, tasting • object permanence - knowledge that an object exists even when it is not in sight - ex: “peek”-a-boo” game Stage 2: Preoperational • 2 to 7 years • egocentrism - inability to see world through anyone else’s eyes • conservation issues (logic) - centration • focusing on just one feature - irreversibility • unable to “mentally reverse” actions Stage 3: Concrete Operations • 7 to 12 years • conservation (logically reason) - decentration and reversibility - capable of considering all relevant features • classification • concrete logic - objects, written rules, real things - see it, touch it, “see” it in their heads Stage 4: Formal Operations • 12 years to adulthood • abstractions and analogies - understand concepts that have no physical reality • hypothesis testing - think about possibilities - “what if…” Vygotsky’s Theory • Piaget: stressed importance of child’s interaction with objects as a primary factory in cognitive development • Vygotsy: stressed importance of social interactions with other people, typically more highly skilled children and adults - scaffolding- help less skilled learner (adult to child) - zone of proximal development • ex: 4th grade math on her own; 6th grade math with teacher; ZPD is two years Stages of Languages Development • cooing- 2 months (vowel-like sounds) • babbling- 6 months (consonant sounds) • one-word speech- age 1 • telegraphic speech- 18 months (2 to 3 word speech) • whole sentences- 4 to 6 years old Psychosocial Development: Temperament • longitudinal research suggest these 3 temperament styles last well into adulthood, although they are somewhat influenced by the environment in which infant is raised • temperament: behavioral characteristics established at birth - easy- child is regular in schedules, easy to follow - difficult- child is irregular in schedules, doesn't like change - slow to warm up- child is slow to adapt to change, very gradual Psychosocial Development: Attachment • attachment: bond between infant and caregiver - forming first 6 months • Ainsworth’s “Strange Situation” - exposing infant to series of leave-taking and returns of mother and stranger • attachment styles - secure infant- attached (80% of children) - avoidant infant- unattached - ambivalent infants- insecurely attached - disorganized-disoriented infants- insecurely attached, sometimes abuse/neglect • Harlow’s rhesus monkeys - contact comfort Psychosocial Development: Erikson’s Theory • Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development: - each stage an emotional crisis or turning point in personality • stage 1) trust vs mistrust • stage 2) autonomy v.s. shame • stage 3) initiative v.s. guilt • stage 4) industry v.s. inferiority • stage 5) identity v.s. role confusion • stage 6) intimacy v.s. isolation • stage 7) generativity v.s. stagnation • stage 8) ego integrity v.s. despair Stage 1: Trust v.s. Mistrust • birth to 1 year • basic needs consistently or inconsistently met • predictability→ trust Stage 2: Autonomy v.s. Shame • 1 to 3 years • toddlers realize that they can direct their own behavior • direction → autonomy • needs to become physically independent - still work off trust relationship • if not, could lead to learning self doubt Stage 3: Initiative v.s. Guilt • • • • 3 to 5 years pre-schoolers challenged to control behavior responsibility → initiative not only physically independent, but mentally independent as well - feel responsible and capable Stage 4: Industry v.s. Inferiority • 5 to 12 • school-aged children have more opportunities to learn • new skills → industry • gaining confidence & self esteem (learning new skills) - ex: joining a soccer team (w/ positive or negative reinforcement) • role of caregiver: keep motivating, find their niche • industry: feeling of accomplishment and self esteem Stage 5: Identity v.s. Role Confusion • adolescence • choices among many values in life • self confidence → identity • goal is to achieve a consistent sense of themselves • need caregivers to be there for them in this stage - be flexible, accept failure Stage 6: Intimacy v.s. Isolation • early adulthood • primary task is finding a mate - committed relationship without losing self • sharing → intimacy • still focuses on identity Stage 7: Generativity v.s. Stagnation • middle adulthood • creative & productivity - nurturing the next generation • focus outward → generativity • when you've already figured out your niche, and now you want to “give back” • mid-life crisis usually occurs in this state Stage 8: Ego Integrity v.s. Despair • late adulthood • wisdom, spirituality, tranquility • wholeness of self (emotionally, mentally etc..) • come to terms with morality - ego integrity: the ability to let go of regrets • acceptance → integrity Gender Role Development Gender Gender Identity behaviors associated with being male or female perception of one’s gender and the behavior that is associated with that gender • age 2- realize difference between girls and • learn through play with parents boys; and which gender they are Diana Baumrind: Parenting Styles • three components: 1. authoritarian - rigid, stern, and uncompromising, demanding and perfecting - over concerned with rules - usually results in child with anxiety 2. permissive - few demands on a child’s behavior; unconcerned or indulgent - unconcerned with daily activities of the child; neglectful - child has poor social skills (unpopular with peers) 3. authoritative - consistent and firm but warm and flexible Adolescence • adolescence is the period of life during which a young person is no longer physically a child but is not yet an independent, self-supporting adult • adolescence: age 13 to early 20s • chronological age • life issues Physical and Cognitive Development Physical Cognitive puberty: - bodily changes - sexual development adolescent egocentrism: - personal fable - unique and protected from harm • primary and secondary sex characteristics • imaginary audience - everyone is looking at them - extreme self consciousness Moral Development: Kohlberg’s Theory • Lawrence Kohlberg - developmental psychologist - influenced by Piaget and others - developed a theory of the development of moral thinking - looked at how people of various ages responded to stories about people caught up in moral dilemmas - 3 levels of morality Kohlberg’s Levels of Morality • 3 levels • “ventional”= general standards of the norms that get set by the culture Preconventional Conventional Postconventional consequences determine morality conforming to society’s norms morality decided upon by individual ex: reward= good punishment= bad ex: rules/laws may conflict with rules and/or accepted norms Adulthood • adulthood can be thought of as the period of life from the early 20’s until old age and death • exactly when adulthood begins is not always easy to determine (cultural difference) • divided into: young, middle, late Physical and Cognitive Development Physical • menopause: decline in reproductive system • andropause: changes in the sexual hormones & Cognitive reaction times slow down, but intelligence and memory remain relatively stable reproductive system of males • increase in health problems Theories of Physical & Psychological Aging • some theories of physical aging point to biological changes in cellular structure, whereas others focus on the influence of external stress • remaining active and involved results in the most positive adjustment to aging • aging theories: - cellular-clock theory • cells limited to reproduction - wear-and-tear theory • stress and physical exertion - free-radical theory • oxygen molecules - activity theory • volunteer, hobbies, friendships Stages of Death & Dying • Elisabeth Kübler-Ross theorized that people go through 5 stages of reaction when faced with death: 1. denial 2. anger 3. bargaining 4. depression 5. acceptance Cross-Cultural Views on Death • while westerners see a person as either dead or alive, in some cultures a person who, by western standards is clearly alive, is mourned as already dead - Wealthy Hindu families: a dying person is surrounded by family and friends and then honored with a funeral process of nearly 2 weeks - Northern Cheyenne culture: death is seen as part of the process of the life cycle, and takes place in 3 stages - Navajo culture: the dead are believed to move to the underworld, and contact with the body is strictly limited for fear of luring evil spirits to the world of the living