American Imperialism Chapter Summary

1. _____ 2. _____ 3. _____ 4. _____ 5. _____ 6. _____ Chapter Theme Theme: In the 1890s a number of economic and political forces sparked a spectacular burst of imperialistic expansionism for the United States that culminated in the Spanish-American War—a war that began over freeing Cuba and ended with the highly controversial acquisition of the Philippines and other territories. Chart on Appendix page 57 for economic forces for expansion Imperialism: the policy in which stronger nations extend their economic, political, or military control over weaker territories Chapter Summary Various developments provoked the previously isolated United States to turn its attention overseas in the 1890s. Among the stimuli for the new imperialism were the desire for new economic markets, the sensationalistic appeals of the “yellow press,” missionary fervor, Darwinist ideology, great-power rivalry, and naval competition. Strong American intervention in the Venezuelan boundary dispute of 1895–1896 demonstrated an aggressive new assertion of the Monroe Doctrine and led to a new British willingness to accept American domination in the Western Hemisphere. Longtime American involvement in Hawaii climaxed in 1893 in a revolution against native rule by white American planters. President Cleveland temporarily refused to annex the islands, but the question of incorporating Hawaii into the United States triggered the first full-fledged imperialistic debate in American history. The “splendid little” Spanish-American War began in 1898 over American outrage about Spanish oppression of Cuba. American support for the Cuban rebellion had been whipped up into intense popular fervor by the “yellow press.” After the mysterious Maine explosion in February 1898, this public passion pushed a reluctant President McKinley into war, even though Spain was ready to concede on the major issues. An astounding first development of the war was Admiral Dewey’s naval victory in May 1898 in the rich Spanish islands of the Philippines in East Asia. Then in August, American troops, assisted by Filipino rebels, captured the Philippine city of Manila in another dramatic victory. Despite mass confusion, American forces also easily and quickly overwhelmed the Spanish in Cuba and Puerto Rico. After a long and bitter national debate over the wisdom and justice of American imperialism, which ended in a narrow proimperialist victory in the Senate, the United States took over the Philippines and Puerto Rico as colonial possessions. Regardless of serious doubts about imperialism, the United States had strongly asserted itself as a proud new international power. Discussion Questions How was American expansionism overseas similar to previous continental expansion westward, and how was it different? Was the taking of Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines really a violation of fundamental American ideals of self-government and democracy? Factors influencing Imperialism: Industrialization had caused American production to grow rapidly= need markets Centennial celebration of 1876= nationalism New application of the Monroe Doctrine= Alaska, France out of Mexico, businesses in Latin America, Hawaii France forced out of Mexico (1862-1867) was the completion of the Pastry War (1838) The Allied Intervention Since the proclamation of the Monroe Doctrine, US policy had been to oppose the extension of European power over the newly independent nations of Latin America. Latin America's continuing independence in this period was in fact more due to British influence, but the US could not be blithely ignored. That was until November of 1860, with the election of Abraham Lincoln. With the resulting secession of the South and the proclamation of the Confederate States of America, the US government was paralyzed. In April of 1861 open civil war began at Fort Sumter, and now Mexico had no effective support from Washington. In October of 1861, Britain, France and Spain signed the Convention of London, agreeing to occupy the port of Veracruz to force the Mexican government to honor its international obligations. The majority of the debts, 69 million pesos, was owed to Great Britain. The French had only some 3 million pesos in claims, but the Jecker claims gave the French another 15 million pesos. All three powers agreed not to pursue territorial claims, but in fact Napoleon III already had a plan in mind. Maximilian, Archduke of Austria and popular younger brother of Franz Josef, the Hapsburg emperor of Austria, was unemployed and ambitious. If Napoleon could line up Maximilian to become emperor of Mexico it would heal the breach with Catholic Austria lingering from French support of Italian unification in 1859, and provide France with a prop against the rising might of Prussia. It would give the French a pliable ally in Mexico. But Napoleon III could not move too openly at first. On December 14, 1861, 6,000 Spanish troops landed in Veracruz, followed on January 2 by 800 British marines. Six days later 2000 French marines and 600 zouaves from the French Armeé d'Afrique came ashore. Very soon the allies found themselves in trouble. While control of Veracruz gave them a grip on the economic windpipe of Mexico, it was not a healthy place to be. The Tierra Caliente was low lying coastal jungle and swamp, teeming with malaria, mosquitoes and scourged by the dreaded vomito negro, better known as yellow fever. Veracruz itself swarmed with black zopilotes, vultures, which formed the only sanitation service in the city. Within weeks General Prim, the Spanish commander, alone sent home some 800 sick men to hospitals in Cuba. Juárez wisely played a waiting game, offering to negotiate and letting the vomito take its toll. In mid February the allies consented to a compromise with the Juaristas, agreeing to negotiate the debt issue in exchange for being allowed to march to Orizaba, some 200 miles inland, and 2,800 feet above sea level, out of yellow fever country. This should have been the end of the matter. But now the French showed their true colors. They landed 3000 reinforcements in Veracruz under Brigadier General Ferdinand Latrille, Count de Lorencez. On April 11 the British and Spanish jointly began to leave to re-embark, realizing French intentions and not wanting to be part of a French scheme to take over the whole country. That same day the French declared a state of hostilities to exist with Mexico. Five days later, at Córdoba, Lorencez issued a proclamation announcing France's intention to 'pacify' Mexico, and began rallying Conservative support for a counter-revolution. Cinco de Mayo On April 27, 1862 Lorencez began advancing on Mexico City, some 200 miles from Orizaba, along the same route taken by Hernán Cortéz in 1519 and by the Americans in the Mexican War. Mexico City is situated in the Valley of Mexico, which at 7,300 feet above sea level, is centered in the midst of a high plateau that forms the rugged heart of Mexico. The key to access to the central plateau from Veracruz is the city of Puebla, standing astride the road to Mexico City at some 5,000 feet above sea level. On May 5th, 1862 Brigadier General Lorencez began deploying some 7,000 French troops for what he thought would be an easy assault on the city. But Puebla was held by some 4,000 Mexican troops under the able leadership of Gen. Ignacio Zaragoza. Overconfident, the French launched a frontal attack across a muddy field, straight into the waiting Mexican guns. The attack failed, with Zaragoza's subordinate, Porfirio Díaz, counter punching the French left. At the end of the day some 500 French troops lay dead or wounded, and Lorencez sullenly retreated back to Orizaba. If Puebla was not a brilliant tactical triumph, it was a timely victory for the Juaristas. The Cinco de Mayo gave the Mexican people a much needed shot of national pride, and delayed the French march on Mexico City by a full year. The ensuing breathing space gave the Liberals time to consolidate their control of the country. In the same time period as well, the Union began to gain the upper hand in the American Civil War. Napoleon III's scheme could only succeed if the US was distracted by the continued rebellion of the South. If and when the Union won, the French position in Mexico would quickly become untenable. Immediately the fall of the Confederacy changed the strategic situation in Mexico. If the Rebels had been benevolent neutrals, the Union was decidedly unfriendly to the Mexican Empire. As the last rebels surrendered, Grant rushed three Union corps, some fifty thousand men, under a tough cavalry commander, Gen. Philip Sheridan, to Texas. This Army of Observation was more than enough to trounce any French army Bazaine was likely to bring within striking distance of the Rio Grande. Sheridan was also quick to 'condemn' US arms and supplies, and left them out in the desert for the Juaristas to 'find'. Juárez soon had 40,000 American rifles to re-equip his army. Perhaps as many as 3,000 discharged Union army veterans, including many African Americans, found their way into Juárez's growing host. However, Juárez was careful to resist a number of schemes that involved bringing an American led force into Mexico. Mexicans, whatever their political stripe, were always wary of American intentions in this period.