Domestic Policy Notes

Domestic Policy Notes: Domestic Policy can be defined as all of the laws, government planning, and government actions that affect each individual’s daily life in the United States → (ex) poverty, crime, and the environment. Many of our domestic policies are formulated and implemented by the federal government, but many others are the result of the combined efforts of federal, state, and local governments. The Policy Making Process Steps in the Policymaking Process Agenda Building – Congress must become aware that an issue requires congressional action. Agenda building may occur through: - A crisis - Technological change - Mass media campaigns - Efforts of strong political personalities - Effective lobbying groups Agenda Formulation – various policy proposals are discussed among government officials and the public. - Such discussions may take place in the printed media, on television, and in the halls of Congress. - Congress holds hearings, the president voices the administration’s views, and the topic may even become a campaign issue. Agenda Adoption – choosing a specific strategy from among the proposals that have been discussed. Agenda Implementation – Government action must be implemented by bureaucrats, the courts, police, and individual citizens. Agenda Evaluation – after a policy has been implemented, increasingly groups are undertaking policy evaluation. Groups inside and outside government conduct studies to determine what actually happens after a policy has been implemented for a given period of time. Based on this “feedback” and the perceived success or failure of the policy, a new round of policy making initiatives will be undertaken to correct and hopefully improve on the effort. - A political process including legislative hearings, debates, court deliberations, party conventions, and so on. - A set of policy outputs consisting of legislation, appropriations, and regulations - Policy outcomes, which may provide, for example, more job security, less unemployment, more research on AIDS, and so on. Poverty and Welfare - The Low-Income Population Defining Poverty – the threshold income level, which is used to determine who falls into the poverty category, is based on the CPI (consumer Price Index) is based on the average prices of a specified set of goods and services bought by wage earners in urban areas. - In 2000, for example, the official poverty level for a family of four was about $17,500. It has gone up since then by the amount of the change in the CPI during the intervening period. The poverty level varies with family size and location. The official poverty level is based on pretax income, including cash but not in-kind subsidies – food stamps, housing vouchers, and the like. Major Government-Assistance Programs – With the passage in 1996 of the Personal Responsibility and Work Act (known as the Welfare Reform Act), Congress made significant changes in the nation’s welfare system. The states gained more responsibility for establishing welfare rules and managing the welfare program. Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) – the U.S. government turns over to the states, in the form of block grants, funds targeted for welfare assistance. The states, not the national government, now have to meet the costs of any increased welfare spending. - One of the basic aims of the Welfare Reform Act was to reduce welfare spending by all governments in the long run. - One change involved limiting most welfare recipients to only two years of welfare assistance. The bill also limited lifetime welfare assistance to five years. The Supplemental Security Income (SSI) program was established in 1974 to provide a nationwide minimum income for elderly persons and persons with disabilities who do not qualify for Social Security benefits. Food Stamps – coupons that can be used to purchase food. Food stamps are available for low-income individuals and families. Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) Program – was created in 1975 to help low-income workers by giving back part or all of their Social Security taxes. Children Living In Poverty – nearly 19% of America children live in poverty. Young Children in Poverty -- For young children under the age of 6, the poverty rate is 22%. About 10% of young children live in extreme poverty. - America’s youngest children are more likely to live in poverty than Americans in any - - - other age group. The poverty rate for young children is often two to three times higher than that of other major Western industrialized nations. Extreme poverty during the first 5 years of life has a more negative effect on a child’s future chances than extreme poverty experienced in later childhood. Poverty’s Effect on Children – some have argued that children of very poor families fail in society because their parents are unlike other parents. The policy implications of this debate are crucial, for if children from poor families are just like everyone else, then reducing poverty rates will lead to higher success rates in the economic and social world for such children. Homelessness – Still a Problem – some observers argue that the Welfare Reform Act of 1996 has increased the numbers of homeless persons. It is difficult to estimate how many people are homeless because the number depends on how the homeless are defined. There are street people – those who sleep in bus stations, parks, and other areas. Many of these are youthful runaways. There are sheltered homeless – those who sleep in government-supported or privately funded shelters. Environmental Policy The Government’s Response to Air and Water Pollution Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1948 provided research and assistance to the states for pollution-control efforts, but little was done. Federal Air Pollution Control Act of 1955 gave some assistance to states and cities The National Environmental Policy Act in 1969 – this landmark legislation established, among other things, the Council for Environmental Quality. Also it mandated that an environmental impact statement (EIS) be prepared for all major federal actions that significantly affected the quality of the environment. The act gave citizens and public-interest groups concerned with the environment a weapon against the unnecessary and inappropriate use of natural resources by the government. The Clean Air Act of 1990 – this act amended the 1963 Clean Air Act, which had also been amended in 1970 and 1977. The 1990 amendments required automobile manufacturers to cut new automobiles’ exhaust emissions of nitrogen oxide by 60% and emissions of other pollutants by 35%. - Stationary sources of air pollution were also made subject to more regulation under the 1990 act. The act required 110 of the oldest coal-burning power plants in the U.S. to cut their emissions by 40% by the year 2001. - The act also required that the production of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) be stopped completely by the year 2002. CFCs are thought to deplete the ozone layer and increase global warming. CFCs are used in air-conditioning and other refrigeration units. The Politics of Economic Decision Making - Each policy action carries with it costs and benefits, known as policy trade-offs. The costs are typically borne by one group and the benefits enjoyed by another group. - The Politics of Taxes and Subsidies – subsidies are a type of negative taxes that benefit certain businesses and individuals. Social Security: How Long Will it Last? - Social Security taxes came into existence when the Federal Insurance Contribution Act (FICA) was passed in 1935. - As of 2000, a 6.2% rate was imposed on each employee’s wage up to a maximum of $76,500 to pay for Social Security. In addition, employers must pay in (contribute) an equal percentage. Also there is a combined employer/employee 2.9% tax rate assessed for Medicare on all wage income, with no upper limit. Social Security is a Regressive Tax – when people with higher incomes pay lower tax rates than people with lower incomes, we call it a regressive tax. - Social Security taxes are regressive because once individuals’ income exceeds the maximum taxable amount, they pay no more Social Security taxes. The Grim Future of the Social Security System – the federal Social Security system is basically a pay-as-you-go transfer system in which those who are working are paying benefits to those who are retired. - As long as Congress continues to increase Social Security benefits while at the same time the labor force grows less rapidly than the number of retirees, financial strain will plague the Social Security system. - Social Security also will continue to be a political issue, as well as, a focal point of lobbying efforts, particularly by groups that represent older Americans. Freer World Trade and the World Trade Organization - At the close of WWII in 1945, the United States was clearly the most powerful and influential nation on Earth. - Over the next 25 years, however, U.S. dominance in the global marketplace was challenged. Japan rose from its wartime defeat to become one of the top world economic powers. - The 15 countries of the former European Community (EC) became one consumer - market → European Union (EU) on December 31, 1992. For the first time in more than 100 years, the U.S. economy slipped to 2nd place. Adding to the EU’s formidable economic power is the untapped low-cost labor that is available from the former republics of the Soviet Union and from Eastern Europe. Opening Up World Trade – The WTO -- World Trade Organization (WTO) - The U.S. has been an active participant in the negotiations for reducing tariffs. - The establishment of the WTO will result in a roughly 40% cut in tariffs world-wide. - Agricultural subsidies will eventually be reduced and eventually eliminated. - Protection of patents will be extended world-wide. - The WTO raises serious political issues – although the WTO has arbitration boards to settle international disputes over trade issues, no country has a veto. Opponents argue that a “veto-less” America will repeatedly be outvoted by the mercantile countries of Western Europe and East Asia. Some activist groups maintain that the unelected WTO international trade bureaucrats based in Geneva, Switzerland, are weakening environmental health and consumer safety laws when such laws affect international trade flows. Another criticism is that member nations of the WTO are obligated to pursue favorable trade relations with other member nations regardless of a nation’s record with respect to human rights. Domestic and Economic Policy: Issues for the 21st Century - Poverty remains a blight on the record of one of the world’s richest countries – the United States. - Another domestic policy issue that certainly will continue to challenge policymakers is the level of crime and violence in the United States. - Political issues will continue to swirl around Social Security. - The independence of the Federal Reserve System probably will be an issue also. Many in Congress resents the Fed’s ability to alter economic policy without consulting legislators. Debates over the effectiveness of the Fed’s policies will never end, because even economists disagree. Vocab and important info: Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act- 2010 legislation aimed at reducing the number of uninsured individuals and decreasing health care costs. Greenhouse Gases- Gases in the atmosphere that lead to higher global temperatures. Global Warming- The increase in global temperatures due to carbon emissions from burning fossil fuels such as coal and oil. Public Policy- An intentional course of action or inaction followed by government in dealing with some problem or matter of concern Domestic Policy- A category of public policy that includes a broad and varied range of government programs affecting the lives of citizens within a country. Examples: Health care, welfare, education, environment, energy, and public safety Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act- 2010 legislation aimed at reducing the number of uninsured individuals and decreasing health care costs. Department of Education- created as a Cabinet-level agency in 1979 specifically to guide national education policy, establish education opportunity programs, and construct national examinations for administration in local schools. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)- created in 1970 and the federal government passed major policies aff ecting water pollution, air pollution, endangered species, and hazardous waste. Greenhouse Gases- Gases in the atmosphere that lead to higher global temperatures. Global Warming- The increase in global temperatures due to carbon emissions from burning fossil fuels such as coal and oil. Policy-Making Process Models- elite theory, bureaucratic theory, interest group theory, and pluralist theory Elite Theory- all societies are divided into elites and masses. The elites have power to make and implement policy, while the masses simply respond to the desires of the elites. Bureaucratic Theory- all institutions, governmental and nongovernmental, have fallen under the control of a large and ever-growing bureaucracy that carries out policy using standardized procedures. This growing complexity of modern organizations has empowered bureaucrats, who become dominant as a consequence of their expertise and competence. Eventually, the bureaucrats wrest power from others, especially elected offi cials. Interest Group Theory- theory, interest groups—not elites or bureaucrats—control the governmental process. Interest group theorists believe that so many potential pressure points are in the three branches of the national government, as well as at the state level, that interest groups can step in on any number of competing sides. The government then becomes the equilibrium point in the system as it mediates among competing interests. Pluralist Theory- political resources in the United States are scattered so widely that no single group could ever gain monopoly control over any substantial area of policy. Participants in every political controversy gain something; thus, each has some impact on how political decisions are made. The downside is that, because governments in the United States rarely say no to any wellorganized interest, what is good for the public at large often tends to lose out in the American system. All interest groups get in, resources are spread so widely that no single group gets a monopoly. Stages Policy-Making Process 1. Agenda Setting - identifying the problem and why it should be fixed 2. Policy Formation - write the policy and how to fix it 3. Policy Adoption - pass the policy 4. Policy Implementation - becomes a policy that is enforced by the government 5. Policy Evaluation - determine if the policy works Problem: Not every problem fits into a list. Agenda- A set of issues to be discussed or given attention. Systematic Agenda- A discussion agenda; it consists of all public issues that are viewed as requiring governmental attention. Governmental (Institutional) Agenda- Problems to which public officials feel obliged to devote active and serious attention. Agenda Setting- The process of forming the list of issues to be addressed by the government. Policy Formulation- The crafting of proposed courses of action to resolve public problems. Policy Adoption- The approval of a policy proposal by people with the requisite authority, such as a legislature. Policy Implementation- The process of carrying out public policy. Policy Evaluation- The process of determining whether a course of action is achieving its intended goals. Medicare- The federal program established during the Lyndon B. Johnson administration that provides medical care to elderly Social Security recipients. Medicaid- A government program that subsidizes medical care for the poor. No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)- Education reform passed in 2002 that employs high standards and measurable goals as a method of improving American education. Vouchers- Certificates issued by the government that may be applied toward the cost of attending private or other public schools. Charter Schools- Semipublic schools that have open admission but may also receive private donations to increase the quality of education. Clean Air Act of 1970- The law that established national primary and secondary standards for air quality in the United States. A revised version was passed in 1990. Clean Water Act of 1972- The Act that created water quality standards to control pollution, including elimination of point source discharge of pollutants. 16.1 Public policy is an intentional course of action or inaction followed by the government in dealing with some problem or matter of concern. A popular model used to describe the policy-making process views it as a sequence of stages that include agenda setting, policy formulation, policy adoption, policy implementation, and policy evaluation. Although this model can be useful, it is a simplification of the actual process, and it does not always explain why policies take the forms they do or who controls the formation of public policy. 16.2 Governments in the United States have a long history of involvement in the health of Americans. Beginning in the 1960s, the government began to fund health programs for senior citizens and the poor, known as Medicare and Medicaid, respectively. And in 2010, after several failed attempts by prior administrations, the Democratic Congress passed and President Barack Obama signed the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, expanding the national government's role in providing health insurance. The U.S. government also plays a prominent role in public health through the use of immunizations, education, advertisements, research, and regulations. 16.3 Education policy in the United States has been a work in progress for over two centuries, and reform has focused on social and political order, individual liberty, and social and political equity. In 2002, President George W. Bush signed into law a bipartisan bill commonly referred to as No Child Left Behind. It set high standards and measurable goals as a method of improving American education. One of the act's more controversial tenets involves the issue of school choice, whereby if a child is attending a failing school, parents have the option of sending the child to another public, private, or charter school that is subsidized through government vouchers. President Barack Obama's Race to the Top initiative encourages states to develop their own innovative education reforms to accelerate progress. 16.4 As energy sources have become more limited and environmental problems have magnified, government efforts in these policy fields have expanded. Before the 1970s, activity on the part of the government to establish policies related to energy and environmental protection was very limited. Energy shortages and expanding pollution problems propelled these policy areas into the forefront of the government's agenda in the 1970s, but their prominence at the national level has fluctuated greatly. During recent years, skyrocketing energy prices and increasing concerns about global warming and other aspects of climate change have placed these issues once again at the center of American politics, with states currently taking the lead in policy development. 16.5 Policy making in the United States is a decentralized process that makes it difficult to pass comprehensive reform. Each of the domestic policy areas highlighted in this chapter- health care, education, and energy and the environment- illustrate the forces that create opportunities for and constraints on change. Each of the five stages of policy making- agenda setting, policy formulation, policy adoption, implementation, and evaluation- presents an additional hurdle for policies to survive. Often it takes policy entrepreneurs or crises to elevate an issue to national attention and force governmental action. Still, most policy making takes place in a context of uncertainty, related to science and technology, costs and benefits, or politics. The nature of problems also constantly evolves, and the policy cycle repeats itself continuously. The issue attention cycle suggests, however, that the country's attention does not stay focused on any one problem for very long. Types of Policy: Distributive Policy- Everyone benefits: infrastructure, school, law enforcement, student loans, water infrastructure, and farm subsidies Regulatory Policy- Environmental policy, system regulations, industry regulations. More controversial. Limit choices in order to restrict unacceptable behavior. Redistributive Policy- Most conflicted: Social security, welfare system, unemployment, Obamacare transfer resources from one group to another for assistance- affordable care act. Procedural policy- conduct of government officials, elected or unelected, as well as government staff in government agencies. Substantive policy- A Substantive Policy Statement is a written expression that is only advisory and that informs the general public of a county's current approach to, or opinion of, the requirements of the ordinances or regulations, including, where appropriate, the county's current practice, procedure or method of action based on that approach or opinion Streams Model of Policy-Making Two streams: one is people trying to find a solution to the problem, the other is politicians trying to win reelection. Window of opportunity: when the two streams connect and change can happen Punctuated Equilibrium- When a major change occurs, it will be a long time before another change occurs. Long periods of inactivity with brief periods of change. Techniques uses to implement public policy: 1. Authoritative techniques: For policy implementation on grass on the notion that people's actions must be directed or restrained by government in order to prevent or eliminate activities or products that are unsafe, unfair, evil, or immoral. For example, consumer products must meet certain safety regulations, and radio stations can be fined heavily or have their broadcasting licenses revoked if they broadcast obscenities. 2. Incentive techniques: For policy implementation encourage people to act in their own best interest by offering payoffs or financial inducement for compliance with public policies. Such policies may provide tax deductions to encourage charitable giving or the purchase of alternative-fuel vehicles, such as hybrid automobiles. Farmers also receive subsidies to make their production of wheat, corn, and other Goods more profitable. Conversely, sanctions, such as high taxes, may discourage the purchase and use of products such as tobacco and liquor, and pollution fees may reduce the discharge of pollutants by making this action more costly to businesses. 3. Capacity techniques: Provide people with information, education, training, or resources that enable them to participate and desired activities. The Assumption underlying these techniques is that people have incentive or desire to do what is right but lack the capacity to act accordingly. Job training may help able-bodied people find work, and accurate information on interest rates will enable people to protect themselves against interest rate gouging. 4. Hortatory techniques: Encourage people to comply with policy by appealing to their ¨better instincts¨ and thereby directing them to act and desired ways. In this instance, policy implementers assume that people decide how to act according to their personal values and beliefs. During the Reagan Administration, first lady Nancy Reagan in Florida young people to ¨just say no to drugs.¨ Horror to Tori techniques to discourage littering include the use of highway signs displaying slogans like ¨don't be a litterbug¨ and ¨Don't Mess with Texas.¨ Policy formulation may take many forms: 1. Routine formulation- The process of altering existing policy proposals or creating new proposals within an issue area the government has previously addressed. For instance, the formulation of policy for veterans benefits is routine. 2. Analogous formulation- This handles new Problems by drawing on experience with similar problems in the past or in other jurisdictions. What has been done in the past to cope with economic recession? How have other states dealth with child abuse or divorce law form? 3. Creative formulation- This involves attempts to develop new or unprecedented proposals that represent a departure from existing practices and that will better resolve our problem. For example, plans to develop an anti-missile defense system to shoot down incoming missiles represents a departure from previous defense strategies of mutual destruction