Intrinsic Value: The value something has in itself or for its own sake (e.g., happiness, beauty). Instrumental Value: The value something has as a means to achieving something else (e.g., money, tools). Homomensura: A philosophical idea from Protagoras meaning "man is the measure," suggesting that truth and value are relative to each individual. Theocentric: A worldview centered around God as the fundamental focus of existence and meaning. Deism: The belief that God created the universe but does not intervene in it; God is like a distant watchmaker. Natural Rights: Rights that individuals have simply by virtue of being human (e.g., life, liberty, property). Natural Law: A moral theory asserting that certain rights or values are inherent by virtue of human nature and can be universally understood through reason. Positive Law: Laws created by human beings (e.g., statutes, regulations) as opposed to laws thought to be derived from nature or divine command. Divine Law: Law believed to be given by God, typically revealed through sacred texts or prophets. State of Nature/War: A philosophical concept (from Hobbes, Locke, etc.) referring to human existence before political society; a "state of war" implies that without government, life is chaotic and dangerous. Sovereign: The supreme authority in a political community, typically the ultimate decision-maker (e.g., a monarch, a parliament, the people). The State: A political organization with centralized government that maintains a monopoly on legitimate use of force within a territory. Express Consent: Explicit agreement to something, usually in words or writing. Tacit Consent: Implicit agreement, often inferred by someone's actions (e.g., living under a government's rule without protest). Vacuous Locus: A concept describing a position or entity that lacks any real substance, content, or authority. Tabula Rasa: The idea, especially associated with John Locke, that the mind starts as a "blank slate," shaped entirely by experience. Royal Supremacy: The doctrine that the monarch is the supreme authority in the realm, especially over the church (e.g., Henry VIII in England). Divine Command: The ethical theory that morality is whatever God commands. Divine Conformity: The idea that moral laws or human conduct should align with God's will or nature. Creation ex Nihilo: "Creation out of nothing"; the belief that God created the world without using pre-existing materials. Utilitarianism: The ethical theory that actions are right if they promote the greatest happiness for the greatest number. Liberalism: A political and moral philosophy emphasizing individual freedom, democracy, and the protection of rights. Tyranny of the Majority: A situation where the majority uses its power to oppress minority groups, even within democratic systems. Communitarianism: A philosophy that emphasizes the interests of the community or collective over individual rights. Moral Legalism: The belief that morality is fundamentally about following rules and laws. Descriptive: Referring to statements or theories that describe how things are, without making judgments. Normative: Referring to statements or theories that prescribe how things should be. Ethical Egoism: The theory that individuals ought to act in their own self-interest. Psychological Egoism: The descriptive theory that individuals always act in their own self-interest. Metaphysics: A branch of philosophy dealing with the fundamental nature of reality, including existence, time, and being. Deontology: An ethical theory that emphasizes duties and rules over consequences (associated with Kant). Rationalism: The epistemological view that reason is the chief source of knowledge. Empiricism: The epistemological view that knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience. Means: A method, tool, or course of action used to achieve an end. Ends: The ultimate goal or outcome that one aims to achieve. Categorical Imperative: Kant’s principle that one should act only according to maxims that could be universally willed. Absolutism: The ethical belief that certain actions are absolutely right or wrong, regardless of context or consequences. Hypothetical Imperative: Commands that apply conditionally: "If you want X, then you should do Y." Universal Law of Nature: Kant’s idea that moral rules must be capable of being universalized — applied consistently to everyone. Humanity Formula: A version of Kant’s Categorical Imperative: Treat humanity, whether in yourself or others, always as an end, never as a means only. Kingdom of Ends: Kant's ideal society where all individuals treat each other as ends in themselves and respect universal moral laws. Perfect Duty: Duties that are always to be followed (e.g., do not lie). Imperfect Duty: Duties that are more flexible and allow for discretion (e.g., helping others). Good Will: According to Kant, the only thing that is good without qualification; the will to act according to moral duty. White Supremacy: The belief or system that white people are superior to those of other racial backgrounds and should dominate society. Sliding Scale: A way of assessing something in degrees, rather than as an absolute — often used in ethics or law. Patriarchy: A social system in which men hold primary power, dominating roles in leadership, moral authority, social privilege, and control of property. Paternalism: Acting in a way that limits another’s freedom or autonomy "for their own good," like a parent does for a child.