A Comparison of the Ethical Codes in Counseling - ACA vs. AACC (Crediting Your Sources)

Crediting Your Sources Paraphrasing and Direct Quotes Paraphrasing is rephrasing another’s idea in one’s own words by changing the wording sufficiently without altering the meaning (remember not to just change a word here or there or rearrange the order of the original source’s wording). Quoting is using another’s exact words. Both need to be cited; failure to do so constitutes plagiarism. Include the author(s) and year for paraphrases, and the author(s), year, and page or paragraph number for direct quotes. APA-7 also expands this to include figure number, time stamp, etc.—whatever detail is necessary to get the reader directly to that content. Page numbers should be used for any printed material (books, articles, etc.), and paragraph numbers should be used in the absence of page numbers (online articles, webpages, etc.; see APA, 2019, section 8.13). Use p. for one page and pp. (not italicized in your paper) for more than one (section 8.25). Use para. for one paragraph and paras. (also not italicized in your paper) for two or more (section 8.28). For example: (Perigogn & Brazel, 2012, pp. 12–13) or (Liberty University, 2019, para. 8). Section 8.23 of the APA (2019) manual specifies that it is not necessary to include a page or paragraph number for paraphrases (just for direct quotes), but writers may choose to do so to help their readers find that content in the cited resource. When naming authors in the text of the sentence itself (called a narrative citation), use the word “and” to connect them. For example, Perigogn and Brazel (2012) contemplated that . . . Use an ampersand (&) in place of the word “and” in parenthetical citations and reference lists: (Perigogn & Brazel, 2012). Paraphrasing Only use quotes when the original text cannot be said as well in your own words or changing the original wording would change the author’s meaning. You cannot simply change one word and omit a second; if you paraphrase, the wording must be substantially different, but with the same meaning. Regardless, you would need to cite the resource you took that information from. For example, Benoit et al. (2010) wrote that “although, a link between attachment and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms has been established, the mechanisms involved in this link have not yet been identified” (p. 101). A paraphrase for that quote might be: A link between dysfunctional attachment and the development of PTSD has been made, though there is insufficient data to determine exactly how this mechanism works (Benoit et al., 2010). Block Quotes Quotes that are 40 or more words must be blocked, with the left margin of the entire quote indented ½ inch. Maintain double-spacing of block quotes. APA prefers that you introduce quotes but note that the punctuation falls at the end of the direct quote, with the page number outside of that (which is contrary to punctuation for non-blocked quotes). For example, Alone (2008) claims:2 Half of a peanut butter sandwich contains as much bacteria as the wisp of the planet Mars. Thus, practicality requires that Mrs. Spotiker nibble one bit at a time until she is assured that she will not perish from ingesting it too quickly. (p. 13) Usually quotes within quotes use single quotation marks; however, use double quotation marks for quotes within blocked quotes, since there are no other quotation marks involved. Also understand that direct quotes should be used sparingly in scholarly writing; paraphrasing is much preferred in APA format (APA, 2019, section 8.23), as it demonstrates that you read, understood, 2 Note that there are no quotation marks for block quotes, as shown in the example. and assimilated other writers’ content into one cohesive whole. How Often to Cite Your Source in Each Paragraph As already mentioned above, APA’s (2019) new official rule is that you no longer must cite your source every single time you refer to material you gleaned from it (section 8.1). It is now acceptable to cite your source the first time you refer to content from it in your paragraph, and then not again in that same paragraph unless your phrasing does not make the source of your content clear. This is demonstrated throughout this sample paper. Rule for Omitting the Year of Publication That being said, APA (2019) has clarified its special rule that excludes the year of publication in subsequent narrative in-text citations (when you name the authors in the text of the sentence itself), after the first narrative citation in each paragraph. It should continue to appear in all parenthetical citations (see section 8.16). For example, Alone (2008) portrays imagery of Mrs. Spotiker. This includes her devouring a peanut butter sandwich (Alone, 2008). Alone conveys this through the lens of astronomy. Note that the year of publication was omitted from the second narrative citation (underlined for visual purposes). Arranging the Order of Resources in Your Citations If the material you cited was referred to in multiple resources, separate different sets of authors with semicolons, arranged in the order they appear (alphabetically by the first author’s last name) in the reference list (i.e., Carlisle, n.d.-a; Prayer, 2015) (APA, 2019, section 8.12). APA-7 now invites writers to prioritize or highlight one or more sources as most prominent or relevant for that content by placing “those citations first within parentheses in alphabetical order and then insert[ing] a semicolon and a phrase, such as ‘see also,’ before the first of the remaining citations” (APA., 2019, p. 263)—i.e., (Cable, 2013; see also Avramova, 2019; De Vries et al., 2013; Fried & Polyakova, 2018). Periods are placed after the closing parenthesis, except with indented (blocked) quotes. Two Works by the Same Author in the Same Year Authors with more than one work published in the same year are distinguished by lowercase letters after the years, beginning with a (APA, 2019, section 8.19). For example, Double (2008a) and Double (2008b) would refer to resources by the same author published in 2008. When a resource has no date, use the term n.d. followed by a dash and the lowercase letter (i.e., Carlisle, n.d.-a and Carlisle, n.d.-b; see APA, 2019, section 8.19). Two Works by Two Different Authors with the Same Last Name Citations in the body of the paper should include only the last names, unless you have two or more resources authored by individuals with the same last name in the same year (or are citing a personal communication). When there are two different authors with the same last name but different first names who published in the same year, include the first initials: Brown, J. (2009) and Brown, M. (2009) (APA, 2019, section 8.20). Three or More Authors Cited In-Text When referring to material that comes from three or more authors, APA-7 now requires that all citations name just the first author’s last name followed by the words et al. (without italics) (APA, 2019, section 8.17). Et al. is a Latin abbreviation for et alii, meaning “and others,” which is why the word “al.” has a period, whereas “et” does not. Alone et al. (2011) stipulated that peacocks strut. Every single time I refer to their material, I would apply APA-7’s rule: Alone et al. (2011) or (Alone et al., 2011). Since et al. denotes plural authors, the verb must be plural to match, too: Alone et al. (2011) are… This applies to all citations within the body of the paper with three or more authors. Number of Authors in the Reference List For resources with 20 or fewer authors in the reference list, write out all of the authors’ last names with first and middle initials, up to and including the 20th author (APA, 2019, section 9.8). APA-7 has a special rule for resources with 21 or more authors: Write out the first 19 authors’ last names with initials, insert an ellipsis (…) in place of the ampersand (&), and finish it with the last name and initials of the last author. See example #4 provided on page 317 of your APA-7, as well as this paper’s reference list for visuals of these variances (Acborne et al. 2011; Kalnay et al., 1996). Numbers Numbers one through nine must be written out in word format (APA, 2019, section 6.33), with some exceptions (such as ages—see section 6.32). Numbers 10 and up must be written out in numerical format (section 6.32). Always write out in word format any number that begins a sentence (section 6.33). Displaying Titles of Works in-Text The names of journals, books, plays, and other long works, if mentioned in the body of the paper, are italicized in title case (APA, 2019, section 6.17). Titles of articles, lectures, poems, chapters, website articles, and songs should be in title case, encapsulated by quotation marks (section 6.7). The year of publication should follow the author’s name, whether in narrative or parenthetical format: Perigogn and Brazel (2012) anticipated…, or (Perigogn & Brazel, 2012). The page or paragraph number must follow after the direct quote. Second (2015) asserted that “paper planes can fly to the moon” (p. 13). You can restate that with a parenthetical citation as: “Paper planes can fly to the moon” (Second, 2015, p. 13). Second (2011) is another resource by the same author in a different year. Primary Sources versus Secondary Sources APA (2019) strongly advocates against using secondary sources; rather, it favors you finding and citing the original (primary) resource whenever possible (section 8.6). On the rare occasion that you do find it necessary to cite from a secondary source, both the primary (who said it) and secondary (where the quote or idea was mentioned) sources should be included in the in-text citation information. If the year of publication is known for both resources, include both years in the citation (section 8.6). Only the secondary source should be listed in the reference section, however. Use “as cited in” (without the quotation marks) to indicate the secondary source. For example, James Morgan hinted that “goat milk makes the best ice cream” (as cited in Alone, 2008, p. 117). Morgan is the primary source (he said it) and Alone is the secondary source (he quoted what Morgan said). Only the secondary source is listed in the reference section (Alone, and not Morgan) because if readers want to confirm the quote, they know to go to page 117 of Alone’s book. Personal Communications APA (2019) rationalizes the exclusion of references for information obtained through personal communication (such as an interview, email, telephone call, postcard, text message, or letter) in the reference list because your readers will not be able to go directly to those sources and verify the legitimacy of the material. Instead, these items are cited only in the body of the paper. You must include the individual’s first initial, his or her last name, the phrase “personal communication” (without the quotation marks), and the full date of such communication (section 8.9). As with other citations, such citations may be either narrative or parenthetical. For example, L. Applebaum advised him to dip pretzel rolls in cheese fondue (personal communication, July 13, 2015). The alternative is that he was advised to dip pretzel rolls in cheese fondue (L. Applebaum, personal communication, July 13, 2015). Note that there is no entry for Applebaum in the reference list below. Resources Canonically Numbered Sections (i.e., the Bible and Plays) These resources should be cited in book format (APA, 2019, Section 9.42). The Bible and other religious works are generally regarded as having no author; an annotated version would be treated as having an editor. Include republished dates as necessary. Bible and other Classical Works Works such as the Bible, ancient Greek or Roman works, and other classical works like Shakespeare must be cited in the body of the paper (APA, 2019, section 8.28). APA-7 now also requires that they be included in the reference list, too (section 9.42), which is a significant change from APA-6. Republished dates are included as well (see section 9.41). As such, you would add a parenthetical phrase at the end of your reference entry with the original publication details; note that there should be no punctuation following such parenthetical content at the end of a reference entry (the reference entries depicting this in the reference list below are correctly punctuated). Citations for the Bible will include the Bible version’s name in the author’s position (as an anonymous work), original and republished years, and then the book chapter/verse (spelled out) in place of the page number (i.e., King James Bible, 1769/2017, Genesis 3:8)—see sections 8.28 and 9.42. Note that APA (2019) requires book titles to be italicized in every venue, including citations and reference entries. Because Liberty University is a distinctly-Christian institution and many of its courses require biblical integration, most if not all of its students will cite the Bible in virtually every course. The examples provided on pp. 274 and 325 of APA-7 are: (note the italics in each) Narrative citation: King James Bible (1769/2017) Parenthetical citation: (King James Bible, 1769/2017, Song of Solomon 8:6) Reference entry: King James Bible. (2017). King James Bible Online. https://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/ (Original work published 1769) Plays When citing plays, “cite the act, scene, and line(s), in a single string, separated by periods. For example, ‘1.3.36-37’ refers to Act 1 Scene 3, Lines 36-37” (APA, 2019, section 8.28; see also example #37 on p. 325). Lectures and PowerPoints APA (2019) has expanded and standardized its rules for citations and reference entries in an effort to best credit the original sources. It now includes rules for crediting content in course or seminar handouts, lecture notes, and PowerPoint presentations (see #102 on p. 347). When citing a PowerPoint presentation, include the slide number rather than the page number. For purposes of Liberty University course presentations and lectures (which are not readily available to the public), reference each as a video lecture with the URL (if available) for the presentation, naming the presenter(s) in the author’s position. Include the course number, lecture title, and enough details for others to identify it within that course, in a sort of book format, naming Liberty University as publisher. Peters (2012) is an example of this in the reference list of this paper. If the presenter for a Liberty University class lecture is not named, credit Liberty University as the author; see Liberty University (2020) in the reference list below as an example. Dictionary Entries In keeping with its efforts to standardize reference entries, APA (2019) now requires citation and referencing of word definitions from dictionaries to follow the same rules for chapters in an edited book (see #47 and #48 on p. 328; section 8.13). As such, you will now name either the individual, group, or corporate author of the dictionary in the author’s place (e.g., Merriam-Webster, n.d.). If you searched online, include the retrieval date and the URL to the exact webpage. If you used a hard copy book, include the publisher details. The in-text citation in the body of the paper would follow standard author/year format (e.g., Merriam-Webster, n.d.). Changes in Reference Entries There are a number of notable changes in APA-7 from past versions. For the most part, these simplify and unify the formats to be more consistent across the different resource venues. Some of these have already been discussed above (i.e., naming up to 19 authors’ names before adding an ellipsis, and crediting authors and editors of classical works and dictionaries). Other changes include italicizing names of webpages and website resources in the reference list (APA, 2019, section 6.22), as well as book titles even when named in the author’s position (such as King James Bible). The city and state locations of publishers are no longer required; only include those details “for works that are associated with a specific location, such as conference presentations” (p. 297, section 9.31). Issue numbers are required for all journal articles that have such, regardless of what page number each issue begins with (section 9.25). If two or more publishers are listed on the copyright page, include all of them in the order listed, separated by semicolons (section 9.29). Omit the word Author in the publisher’s place when it is the same as the author (section 9.24). Electronic Sources Note that since the APA 6th edition was published in 2010, great strides have been made in online and electronic resource accessibility, and APA’s position on electronic resources has shifted to embrace this. More and more resources are available electronically through the Internet. The advent of this increased availability has resulted in APA-7’s effort to standardize the formatting of resources, which in turn simplifies them to some extent. All reference entries follow the same basic details: Author(s), year of publication, name of resource, and location details (i.e., either journal name/volume/issue/page numbers, or book publisher, or webpage). APA (2019) requires inclusion of a Digital Object Identifier (DOI) in the references whenever available (section 9.34); if not, then a webpage, if available. The phrase “Retrieved from” is now excluded except when the content may have changed (such as dictionary entries, Twitter profiles, Facebook pages; see section 9.16). APA-7 requires all hyperlinks to be active (so your reader can click on one to go directly to that webpage), but they may appear as either blue-underlined text or simple black text (section 9.35). There should be no period after any URL. APA-7 no longer requires authors to break long URLs with soft returns (hold down the Shift key and press the Enter key) at forward slashes, periods, or underscores to avoid unsightly spacing gaps, but it may be best to do so in academic papers. Adding Color Though APA (2019) authorizes writers to include the use of color in photographs and figures (section 7.26), Liberty University discourages this in academic papers. It risks becoming distracting for both students in their quest to be creative, and professors in their quest to focus on academic content. Self-Plagiarism APA (2019) also invites writers to repurpose some of their work in future papers. Specifically, APA-7 states that: In specific circumstances, authors may wish to duplicate their previously used works without quotation marks or citation …, feeling that extensive self-referencing is undesirable or awkward and that rewording may lead to inaccuracies. When the duplicated material is limited in scope, this approach is permissible. (p. 8.3) APA-7 adds “Do not use quotation marks or block quotation formatting around your own duplicated material” (p. 256). Liberty University, however, has stringent rules against self-plagiarism, as do many scholarly journals. Liberty University students receive grades for their class papers; those who have received feedback and a grade from a prior professor on a prior paper have an advantage over their classmates, both in having the benefit of that feedback/grade and in not having to write a whole paper from scratch during the subsequent class. Student papers are also submitted to SafeAssign to deter plagiarism. For these reasons, Liberty University expressly forbids students using significant portions of a prior paper in a subsequent course (either a retake of the same course or a new class altogether). It is conceivable that students who are building their knowledge base in a subject matter—particularly at the graduate and post-graduate levels— would reasonably justify incorporating brief excerpts from past papers into current ones. In such case, Liberty University authorizes students to utilize APA-7’s disclosure (i.e., “I have previously discussed”), along with a citation to the prior class paper and a reference entry (i.e., Owen, 2012; Yoo et al., 2016). Such self-references and re-use of content from prior papers should be used sparingly and disclosed fully in the current paper; that content should not constitute a significant portion of any academic assignment, however. Final Formatting Tweaks The templates provided by Liberty University are already formatted with proper spacing, margins, heading level structure, and hanging indents, as necessary. With the exceptions of the title page, figures, and equations, papers in APA format should be double-spaced throughout, with no extra spacing between lines. Academic papers at Liberty University should also be in one of the accepted fonts throughout (recommended: Times New Romans, 12-point font). Sometimes when you format your paper or cut-and-paste material into it, things get skewed. One quick way to ensure that your paper appears correct in these regards is to do a final formatting tweak after you have completed your paper. Hold down the “Ctrl” button and press the “A” key, which selects and highlights all of the text in your paper. Then go to the Home tab in Microsoft Word and make sure that whichever acceptable font/size you choose to use is selected in the Font box. Next, click on the arrow at the bottom of the Paragraph tab. Set your spacing before and after paragraphs to “0 pt” and click the “double” line spacing. The extra spacing required on the title page is already programmed into the template and should not change even when you complete these actions. Exhaustive Reference List Examples & Additional Helpful Resources The reference list at the end of this paper includes an example of a myriad of different sources and how each is formatted in proper APA-7 format. One example of each of the primary types of resources will be included in the reference list, as cited in the body of this paper. Remember that, for purposes of this paper only, many of the sources cited in the body of the paper were provided for illustrative purposes only and thus are fictional, so you will not be able to locate them if you searched online. Nevertheless, in keeping with APA-7 style, all resources cited in the body of the paper are included in the reference list and vice versa (except for personal communications, per APA-7’s published exceptions). Be absolutely sure that every resource cited in the body of your paper is also included in your reference list (and vice versa), excepting only those resources with special rules, such as personal communications and primary sources you could not access directly. Conclusion The conclusion to your paper should provide your readers with a concise summary of the main points of your paper (though not via cut-and-pasted sentences used above). It is a very important element, as it frames your whole ideology and gives your readers their last impression of your thoughts. Be careful not to introduce new content in your conclusion. After your conclusion, if you are not using the template provided by the Online Writing Center, insert a page break at the end of the paper so that the reference list begins at the top of a new page. Do this by holding down the “Ctrl” key and then clicking the “Enter” key. You will go to an entirely new page in order to start the reference list. The word “References” (not in quotation marks) should be centered and bolded. Items in the reference list are presented alphabetically by the first author’s last name and are formatted with hanging indents (the second+ lines of each entry are indented 1/2” from the left margin). APA authorizes the use of singular “Reference” if you only have one resource.3 Students would, of course, NOT include any color-coding or footnotes in their reference entries. However, for the sake of clarity and ease in identifying what each entry represents, each one included in the reference list of this sample paper is color-coordinated to its corresponding footnote, with a brief description of what each depicts.