The Acquisition of Memories and the Working-Memory System

The Acquisition of Memories and the Working-Memory System MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. The operations through which we gain new knowledge, retain that knowledge, and later use that knowledge are often divided into three categories. Which of the following is NOT one of those categories? a. retrieval c. deliberation b. acquisition d. storage ANS: C 2. Which of these is NOT true for an information-processing view of memory? a. It involves a large number of discrete steps. b. Each step within the model has its own characteristic and its own job to do. c. All the steps of the model run in parallel. d. The output of one step provides the input of the next step in the sequence. ANS: C 3. Which of the following is NOT an attribute of working memory (sometimes called short-term memory)? a. unlimited storage capacity b. drawn on by a wide range of tasks c. easily accessible d. contents closely associated with the current focus of attention ANS: A 4. One difference between working memory and long-term memory is that a. the contents of working memory tend to be in the form of visual images, whereas the contents of long-term memory are often verbal and symbolic. b. damage to the brain can disrupt working memory, but long-term memory seems not to be similarly vulnerable. c. long-term memory has a limited capacity, whereas working memory does not. d. the contents of working memory depend on the content of one’s current thinking, but the contents of long-term memory do not. ANS: D 5. The modal model asserts that information processing involves at least two kinds of memory: working memory and long-term memory (LTM). Working memory a. has the same capacity to hold items as LTM. b. differs from LTM in how easily one can access the stored items. c. uses the same rehearsal mechanisms as LTM. d. has no discernible effect on functioning outside the laboratory. ANS: B 6. The modal model asserts that information processing involves at least two kinds of memory: working memory and long-term memory. Long-term memory is a. theoretically unlimited in capacity. b. the active component of working memory. c. not susceptible to forgetting. d. limited in duration. ANS: A 7. According to the modal model of memory, words presented early in a list are easier to remember than words presented later because a. they are still residing in working memory at the time of the test. b. participants are particularly alert at the beginning of the list presentation. c. the early words receive more of the participants’ attention than the later words. d. the early words suffer from less interference than the later words. ANS: C 8. What is the best analogy for long-term memory storage? a. a work bench b. a storage container, like a box c. a busy librarian d. a loading dock outside a warehouse ANS: C 9. Which of the following is NOT considered a modern change to the modal model of memory? a. Sensory memory is not emphasized. b. Short-term memory is now called working memory. c. Working memory refers to a process more than a storage system. d. Working memory and long-term memory are considered the same construct. ANS: D 10. The modal model has seen some revision in recent years, but a few key components remain. Which of the following is NO LONGER an accepted aspect of the modal model? a. Working memory is used only for temporary storage of information. b. Working memory and long-term memory are considered separate memory processes. c. Working memory is fragile and easily disrupted. d. Working memory is limited in capacity. ANS: A 11. Working memory (WM) has been likened to a desk space that holds the current information for a short period of time. This analogy is problematic in what way? a. The desk analogy is too static: WM is capable of more than simply short-term storage. b. WM is more like a filing cabinet with a specific number of slots into which information can be put. c. The size of WM varies across individuals, but a desk never changes size. d. There is no problem with this analogy. ANS: A 12. Free recall refers to a. word association within a list of words. b. recalling words from a list in any order. c. recognizing words from a list. d. memory that requires few attentional resources. ANS: B 13. When asked to recall a list of 25 words, participants are likely to remember only some of them. The words they can recall are likely to include a. approximately the last 12 words on the list. b. the first few words on the list and also approximately the last 6 words on the list. c. approximately the first 12 words on the list. d. words drawn from positions scattered throughout the list. ANS: B 14. Jose is asked to remember the order of a previously presented list of words. Compared to an immediate recall test, what effect would you expect a 20-second delay of white noise to have on memory performance? a. It would have no effect on memory, compared to an immediate recall test. b. It would decrease memory for early words and improve memory for words presented later in the list. c. It would improve memory for early words. d. It would improve memory for recently presented words. ANS: A 15. In list-learning experiments, participants’ performance in the pre-recency portion of the curve will be improved by a. employing more common, familiar words. b. presenting the list of words more quickly. c. employing a longer list of words. d. distracting participants for a moment just after the list’s end. ANS: A 16. A sudden, loud noise often has the impact of distracting participants long enough to clear the contents of working memory. Imagine that participants hear a list of the names of 20 different fruits, followed by an unexpected loud noise. The effect of the noise will be a. a diminished primacy effect but no impact on how well the other words in the list are remembered. b. diminished performance for the entire list. c. a diminished recency effect and a diminished primacy effect but no impact on how well the other words on the list are remembered. d. a diminished recency effect but no impact on how well the other words in the list are remembered. ANS: D 17. An experimenter reads a list of 30 words to a group of participants at the rate of one word per second. This is immediately followed by a free-recall test. A second group of participants hears the same 30 words presented at the faster rate of two words per second. We should expect that the group hearing the slower presentation will show improved memory performance for the a. pre-recency portion of the list, but there will be no impact on the recency effect. b. words at the end of the list and diminished performance for the pre-recency portion of the list. c. entire list. d. words at the list’s end, but there will be no improvement for the words earlier in the list. ANS: A 18. Early estimates of working-memory capacity relied on the digit-span task. The data indicate working memory capacity to be ________ items. a. 10 to 14 c. around 20 b. 2 or 3 d. around 7 ANS: D 19. A participant who is asked to recall a series of numbers chooses to think about the numbers as though “The year I turned 16”). The participant is organizing they were years (e.g., 1, 9, 9, becomes 7 information into the memory unit known as a(n) a. sentence. c. image. b. chunk. d. package. ANS: B 20. When thinking of a list of digits in terms of racing times, one person is found to report up to 79 digits. This suggests that this person a. has a larger working memory than most other participants. b. is well practiced at memory retrieval. c. can remember this information due to a unique chunking strategy. d. does not show the primacy or recency effect. ANS: C 21. Which of the following does NOT correlate with working-memory capacity? a. reading ability b. reasoning skills c. following directions d. making an eye movement toward a cue ANS: D 22. When recalling a list of letters (e.g., ,T ,O ,D ,F ,P ,A ,E G ), participants may group the letters into ). Which of these answers is a potential problem for this syllables for future recall (e.g., TO, DIF strategy? a. The chunking process requires resources, and this makes rehearsal more difficult. b. The process of converting letters into syllables uses resources that often interfere with memory recall. c. Syllables are often nonsensical, and so they can disrupt the recall task. d. The use of syllables extends the primacy and recency effects. ANS: A 23. When using the digit-span task, the capacity of working memory is estimated to be a. approximately one chunk. b. approximately three chunks. c. approximately seven chunks. d. unlimited. ANS: C 24. The operation span of working memory measures the a. number of letters that working memory can store. b. number of sentences that working memory can store. c. rate of transfer of information from working memory into long-term memory. d. efficiency with which working memory operates when it is working. ANS: D 25. Peter has a higher working memory capacity than Josh. Given previous correlational evidence, who would you expect performs better on intelligence tests? a. Peter c. We cannot tell. b. Josh d. They are equally intelligent. ANS: A 26. Current theory suggests that the central executive may be a. used to temporarily store information so that it can then be processed at a later time by the rehearsal loop. b. another name for various cognitive resources. c. merely another lower-level assistant. d. a kind of guidebook for how to “run a program” in the brain. ANS: B 27. The central executive is NOT a. multipurpose. b. task-specific. c. reliant on “helpers.” d. akin to executive control. ANS: B 28. The helper that stores visual materials is called the a. visuospatial buffer. c. visuocentral executive. b. rehearsal loop. d. spatial image icon. ANS: A 29. Within working memory, “helpers” like the visuospatial buffer and articulatory rehearsal loop a. can take over some of the lower-level analyses ordinarily performed by the central executive. b. can provide verbal, but not visual, analysis of the memory items. c. provide short-term storage of items likely to be needed soon by the central executive. d. preserve the items to be remembered in their initial sensory form (e.g., visual stimuli are preserved as visual images). ANS: C 30. You are watching TV when a commercial advertising a new pizza place in town comes on. You decide you want pizza and try to memorize the phone number given in the commercial. Just as you are about to dial, your cell phone rings and you talk on the phone for a few minutes. What is most likely to happen after you finish your call? a. You definitely remember the phone number for the pizza place, so you call and order. b. Out of habit, you call your favorite pizza place (whose number you have memorized), forgetting you wanted to try the new place. c. You think you remember the number and try calling, and you are correct. d. You have forgotten the phone number and must rewind your DVR to retrieve it. ANS: D 31. Participants in an experiment were asked to keep track of the most recent word they had heard that started with a “ .” G Therefore, participants should report “gravy” after hearing the sequence “girl, grump, hat, scissors, whistle, pen, radio, bed, foot, glass, lantern, gravy.” Later, participants are asked ” words they heard. Then we would expect to report back all the “ G a. good recollection of all the words because participants were able to concentrate their attention on the task and rehearsed only one word at a time. b. poor recollection of all the “ G ” words because the situation invites maintenance rather than elaborative rehearsal. c. good recollection of “grump,” since this word was in the participants’ thoughts for a long time (while they were waiting for “glass”). d. poor recollection of the early words in the list but good recollection of the words in the middle of the list. ANS: B 32. The strategy of maintenance rehearsal involves a. the repetition of the items to be remembered and the simultaneous consideration of the items’ meaning. b. a focus on the associations between the items to be remembered and other thoughts and ideas. c. paying attention to the order of items, independent of their meaning. d. the repetition of the items to be remembered, with little attention paid to what the items mean. ANS: D 33. For most recall tests, the transfer of items into long-term storage is best facilitated by ________ rehearsal. a. maintenance c. recency b. elaborative d. primacy ANS: B 34. Week after week, Solomon watched his favorite TV show. He never planned to memorize the characters’ names and he never took any steps to memorize them. Nonetheless, he soon knew them all. This sort of learning is called a. elaborative. c. accidental. b. intentional. d. incidental. ANS: D 35. Which of the following exemplifies the memory effects of repeated exposure without intention to remember? a. Irv is unable to describe the appearance of his wristwatch even though he has owned it for years and looks at it many times each day. b. Mary is unable to recall the name of her first-grade teacher. c. Tony is unable to remember his high school algebra even though he did well in his algebra courses. d. Samantha has managed, with some effort, to learn the names of all of her classmates. ANS: A 36. Based on the composite depth of processing data presented in this book, how does the intention to memorize influence how well we learn? a. It influences learning only with shallow processing. b. It influences learning only with deep processing. c. The intention to memorize adds nothing to our ability to learn. d. It improves our ability to learn, regardless of the depth of processing. ANS: C 37. Which of the following groups is most likely to remember the material it is studying? a. Group 1 intends to memorize a series of words and, while studying, repeats the words mechanically over and over again. b. Group 2 intends to memorize a series of words and, while studying, pays attention to the exact appearance of the words. c. Group 3 has no intention of memorizing the words and searches the list for spelling errors. d. Group 4 has no intention of memorizing the words and attempts to determine how the words are related to one another. ANS: D 38. The intention to learn new material a. leads participants to focus on the meaning of the material to be learned. b. requires participants to repeat the material over and over again. c. leads participants to employ maintenance rehearsal. d. leads participants to approach the material in the fashion they think best for memorization. ANS: D 39. As a general rule, the intention to learn a. usually leads to worse learning than incidental learning. b. has a direct effect on learning. c. leads all people to adopt the same memory strategies. d. has an indirect effect on learning. ANS: D 40. A student wishes to memorize an essay so that he will be able to recall the essay’s content later on. Which of the following is likely to be LEAST helpful to him? a. making certain that he understands the argument contained within the essay b. thinking about why the essay is organized in the way that it is c. reading the essay aloud over and over again d. trying to construct a paraphrase of the essay’s content ANS: C 41. Reading your notes, or the textbook, over and over again is NOT recommended as a study strategy because a. it is an elaborate way to learn information. b. it encourages deep processing. c. it is a passive form of learning. d. you should also be using a highlighter to identify important material. ANS: C 42. Data indicate that, all things being equal, recall performance will be best if materials are encoded with ________ processing. a. shallow c. deep b. intermediate d. sensory ANS: C 43. Which of the following is an example of a question that leads to deep processing? a. What is the meaning of the word “tantalizing”? b. Are there more vowels or more consonants in the word “brain”? c. Can you think of a word that rhymes with “elephant”? d. How many syllables are there in the word “convenient”? ANS: A 44. Deep processing may lead to improved memory performance because it facilitates retrieval. How exactly does this happen? a. Deep processing forms many connections between the current item and previous knowledge. b. Deep processing causes items to be kept in working memory. c. Deep processing encourages the use of mnemonics. d. Deep processing forms fewer retrieval paths, making the correct path easier to access. ANS: A 45. A participant is trying to memorize the word “parade.” To help herself, she thinks about the word within a complicated sentence: “From their third-floor apartment, they had a great view of all the bands, the cowboys, and the floats in the Thanksgiving parade.” This learning strategy will produce a. fine memory performance, but similar performance could be achieved with simpler sentences as long as they require the participant to think about the meaning of the word. b. poor memory performance because the complicated sentence draws attention away from the target word. c. excellent memory performance because the sentence involves a great deal of maintenance rehearsal. d. excellent memory performance because the strategy requires attention to meaning and provides many memory connections. ANS: D 46. Which of the following most accurately represents the probability an item will be retained (most likely > least likely)? a. deep > shallow > maintenance > deep elaborate b. deep elaborate > deep > shallow > maintenance c. maintenance > shallow > deep > deep elaborate d. deep > deep elaborate > shallow > maintenance ANS: B 47. Imagine you are shown the word “DOG” and asked one of the following questions about that word. According to the principles of elaborative encoding, which of the following questions is going to lead to the best memory performance? a. Does it fit into the sentence, “The wags his tail”? b. Does it contain an “A”? c. Does it fit into the following sentence: “The speeding car swung around the corner, music blaring, and screeched to a halt before seeing the ”? d. Does it rhyme with “LOG”? ANS: C 48. A physician has just read an article about a recently invented drug. Which of the following is LEAST important in determining whether the physician will remember the article later on? a. The physician read the article carefully to determine whether it was persuasive. b. The physician realized how suggestions within the article could be integrated with other things she already knew. c. The physician expected to need the information later on and therefore employed a maintenance memorization strategy that she believed had helped her memorize material in the past. d. The physician quickly saw that the new drug might have multiple uses, so she thought about several circumstances in which she might use it. ANS: C 49. It is difficult to predict what an individual will remember for all of the following reasons EXCEPT a. individuals will engage in a variety of mnemonic techniques, some more successful than others. b. memory acquisition depends on previous knowledge, and everyone has different knowledge. c. encoding strategies should be adjusted to match testing strategies, but individuals do not always know what the testing strategy will be. d. it is difficult to test memory. ANS: D 50. Which of these is LEAST important for memory acquisition? a. memory connections c. organization b. shallow processing d. understanding ANS: B 51. A helpful analogy for the encoding and retrieval process in long-term memory is a. cataloguing. c. collating. b. stacking. d. rummaging. ANS: A 52. If a participant is asked to remember a previously experienced event, the relevant memory must be accessed via a. deep processing. c. a retrieval path. b. elaborative processing. d. the memory index. ANS: C 53. In general, any technique designed to improve memory is referred to as a. a mnemonic strategy. c. the method of repetition. b. the method of loci. d. memory rehearsal. ANS: A 54. In a peg-word system, participants help themselves memorize a group of items by a. forming an elaborate sentence about each of the items to be remembered. b. associating each item with some part of an already memorized framework, or skeleton. c. naming the items to themselves over and over again. d. placing each item in its appropriate semantic category. ANS: B 55. Although mnemonics can be helpful for remembering a small number of specific items (like a grocery list), they do have some drawbacks. One such problem is that a. using a mnemonic involves a trade-off of attention so that less attention is available for making the many memory connections that can help one understand the material. b. mnemonics only work when remembering up to seven items. c. mnemonics are particularly difficult to remember when specific information is being tested. d. the recall of all items by mnemonics is slow. ANS: A 56. Is memory for complex scenes similar to memory for words? a. Yes; they both require mnemonics for successful retention. b. Yes; organization facilitates memory for both types of stimuli. c. No; complex scenes require different memory strategies than simple words. d. No; they are dependent on different parts of the brain. ANS: B 57. The memorizer plays an important role in memory acquisition. Which of the following is LEAST likely to have an effect on long-term memory? a. prior knowledge of the memorizer b. the situation in which the memorizer learned the material c. the rehearsal strategy the memorizer used d. the IQ of the memorizer ANS: D 58. Several researchers have compared brain activity during the learning process for words that were later remembered or forgotten. Which of the following is NOT consistent with their findings? a. Increased activity in the hippocampus was associated with better retention. b. Increased activity in the prefrontal cortex was associated with better retention. c. Exposure to an item is enough for retention. d. Learning is an active process. ANS: C 59. According to fMRI evidence, which of the following areas is/are critical to the successful encoding of words? a. amygdala b. medial temporal lobe c. prefrontal cortex d. medial temporal lobe and prefrontal cortex ANS: D