CFII Presentation

CFII Presentation By: Stormie Ingersoll Flight Instruments PitotStatic System –The pitot-static system is a combined system that utilizes the static air pressure and the dynamic pressure due to the motion of the aircraft through the air. –These combined pressures are utilized for the operation of the: – Airspeed indicator – Altimeter – Vertical speed indicator PitotStatic System Airspeed Indicator – The airspeed indicator measures the difference between impact (ram) air pressure from the pitot tube and ambient pressure from the static port. – The result pressure is called dynamic pressure and corresponds to airspeed. – Dynamic Pressure (airspeed) = Impact Pressure – Static pressure. – A diaphragm in the instrument receives ram pressure from the pitot tube. The area outside the diaphragm is sealed and connected to the static port. – A mechanical linkage converts the expansion and contraction of the diaphragm to airspeed shown on the display dial. Altimeter – A aneroid barometer that shows the height above a given pressure level, based on standard pressure lapse rate of 1000 per inch of mercury. – A stack of sealed aneroid wafers expand and contract with changes in atmospheric pressure received from the static port. – A mechanical linkage between the aneroid and the display translates the sensed pressure to an altitude indication. – An altimeter setting knob allows the pilot to adjust the current pressure to the current altimeter setting published locally. – The pressure setting is displayed in the “Kollsman Window” in mb and/or inches of mercury (Hg). Vertical Speed Indicator – Indicates rate-of-climb in fpm (accurate after a 6-9 sec. lag), and rate trend (immediately with rate change). – A diaphragm inside the instrument is connected directly to the static source. – The area outside the diaphragm also receives static pressure, but via a calibrated leak (a restricted orifice). – This configuration essentially responds to static pressure change over time. – As the diaphragm expands or contracts, a mechanical linkage moves the pointer needle to display the current rate of climb to the pilot. Pitot Static Errors – Gyroscopic System –Small wheel spun at high speeds, becomes rigid and resists tilting or turning in any other direction. – Rigidity in space: a gyro will remain in a fixed position inside the aircraft. Gyroscopic Principles – Precession: a force applied to a gyro will be felt 90 degrees in the direction of rotation, allows gyro to determine rate of turn by sensing the amount of pressure created by a change in direction. – Gyroscopic instruments: – Attitude – Heading – Turn Coordinator Attitude Indicator – The relationship of the miniature aircraft to the horizon bar is the same as the relationship of the real aircraft to the actual horizon. – Operates on the principle of rigidity in space. – Shows bank and pitch information. – Operates with a small brass wheel with a vertical spin axis, spun at high speeds normally from a vacuum pump. – Mounted in a double gimbal, which allows the aircraft to pitch and roll around the gyro. Heading Indicator – The heading indicator is fundamentally a mechanical instrument designed to facilitate the use of the magnetic compass. – A heading indicator, however, is not affected by the forces that make the magnetic compass difficult to interpret. – Depends upon the principle of rigidity in space. – The gyro is normally spun by a vacuum pump, mounted in a single gimbal, but it’s spin is in the horizontal plane. – A knob on the instrument face, when pushed, will lock the gimbal and allow the pilot to rotate the card. Set with Mag compass every 15 mins. Turn Coordinator – Shows the rate of turn, quality of turn, and rate of roll. – The gimbal in the turn coordinator is canted. – When rolling into or out of a turn, the miniature aircraft banks in the direction the aircraft is rolled. – The turn coordinator can be used to establish and maintain a standard-rate turn by aligning the wing of the miniature aircraft with the turn index. – The second mark on the left and right side of the instrument serve to indicate a standard rate of turn. – The inclinometer is used to depict aircraft yaw, which is the side-to-side movement of the aircraft’s nose. If the ball is not centered, it can be centered by using the rudder. Turn-and-Slip Indicator – The gyro in the turn-and-slip indicator rotates in the vertical plane corresponding to the aircraft’s longitudinal axis. – A single gimbal limits the planes in which the gyro can tilt, and a spring works to maintain a center position. – Because of precession, a yawing force causes the gyro to tilt left or right, as viewed from the pilot seat. – Uses a pointer, called the turn needle, to show the direction and rate of turn. – Quality of turn and rate of turn. Horizontal Situation Indicator – Some heading indicators referred to as horizontal situation indicators (HSI) receive a magnetic north reference from a magnetic slaving transmitter and generally need no adjustment. – The magnetic slaving transmitter is called a magnetometer. – It has a VOR overlay on top of it, to overcome pilot’s from reverse sensing. Radio Magnetic Indicator – The compass card is driven by signals from the flux valve, and the two pointers are driven by an automatic direction finder (ADF) and a very high frequency (VHF) omni-directional radio range (VOR). Magnetic Compass Pilot is reading from the backside – A magnet is a piece of material (usually containing iron) that attracts and holds line of magnetic flux. – An aircraft magnetic compass, has two small magnets attached to a metal float sealed inside a bowl of clear compass fluid similar to kerosene that allow it to float freely. – A graduated scale, called a card, is wrapped around the float and viewed through a glass window with a line across it. – This jewel-and-pivot type mounting allows the float freedom to rotate and tilt up to approximately 18° angle of bank. – The magnets align with the Earth’s magnetic field and the pilot reads the direction on the scale opposite the lubber line. Magnetic Compass Induced Errors – Variation- Differences between true and magnetic north. – Deviation- Errors due to installation error and electrical disturbances. – Magnetic Dip- Lines of flux dip downward, creates a dip angles. – Oscillation- Combo of all other errors, results in heading swinging. – North/South Turns Errors-Magnetic Dip causes a lag/lead.(UNOS) – Acceleration- Dip correction weight causes the end of the float to be heavier then the opposite end. (ANDS) – The PA-28-181 has a 28V electrical system. Electrical System – Includes a 24volt primary battery, a 70 ampere 28volt alternator, a single external power connector, and an isolated 24volt emergency battery. – Voltage regulator limits the system to 28v and prevents damage to equipment by removing the alternator from the circuit if output exceeds 32v. – Circuit breakers and multiple buses help protect the system. – Ammeter measures electric current. Vacuum System – Air is drawn into the vacuum system by the engine-driven vacuum pump. – Goes through a filter, which prevents foreign matter from entering the vacuum or pressure system. – The air moves through the attitude and heading indicators where it causes the gyros to spin. – A relief valve prevents the vacuum pressure from exceeding prescribed limits. – After that the air is expelled through the overboard vent line Electronic Engine Instrument Display – Digitally displays engine parameters, electrical system parameters, and fuel quantity. – Rather then your standard 6 pack, it displays them digitally. – The Air Data Computer(ADC) computes your pitot static instruments – The Attitude Heading Reference System(AHRS) computes your gyroscopic instruments. – The Archer has an ADAHRS unit which combines both(POH7-59) Primary Flight Display Navigation Equipment VHf Omnirange (VOR) – Very High Frequency Omni-Directional Range – Ground Station oriented to magnetic north, shoots 360 line of sight radials TO or FROM the VOR, operates on VHF 108.00-117.950 MHz. – Consists of a ground station, antenna, a receiver, and the indicator instrument. – Identify with morse code. – Must be checked every 30 days for IFR flight. – Perform every 30 calendar days: – VOT: ±4 (read 180 TO or 360 FROM station)(find on chart supplement) – VOR ground checkpoint: ±4 – VOR airborne checkpoint ±6 – Dual VOR cross-check: within 4 VOR Checks / Limitations – Errors: – Cone of confusion- A cone-shaped volume of airspace directly above a VOR station where no signal is received causing the CDI to fluctuate – Area of ambiguity- area perpendicular to the selected course where the aircraft does not have a clear indication if it is the TO or FROM side of the VOR. – Reverse sensing- The VOR needle appearing to indicate the reverse of normal operation – Line of sight-Where there is an obstacle in the way and the radial signal can’t get through VOR Service Volumes The New VOR standard service volumes Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) – Normally paired with a VHF station (VOR/LOC). – Airborne DME unit transmits a signal, the ground facility receives and replies the signal. – Measured in slant range, the error is negligible at 1 NM per every 1,000ft height – An electronic system that provides both horizontal and vertical guidance to a specific runway, used to execute a precision instrument approach procedure. Instrument Landing System (ILS) – The system consists of: – A localizer providing horizontal (left/right) guidance along the extended centerline of the runway. – A glideslope (GS) providing vertical (up/down) guidance toward the runway touchdown point, usually at a 3° slope. – Marker beacons providing range information along the approach path. – Approach lights assisting in the transition from instrument to visual flight. Marker Beacon Receiver / Indicators – A low-powered transmitter that direct its signal upward in a small, fan-shaped pattern. – Used along the flight path when approaching an airport for landing. – Marker beacons indicate both aurally and visually when the aircraft is directly over the facility. – Located on the localizer front course 4 to 7 miles from the airport – Indicates where, when at the appropriate alt, on the localizer one will intercept glide path – Approximately 3,500’ from the landing threshold on the centerline of the localizer front course. – It is at a position where the glide-slope centerline is about 200’ above the landing threshold. – Located on the front course between the MM and the landing threshold. – Indicates the decision height on a Category II ILS approach. Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) –Using a ground based non-directional beacon(NDB) that transmits radio energy in all directions. –The ADF needle points TO the station regardless of heading or position so if you are not following the correct heading the needle will not show your deviation. – A transponder is a piece of equipment that automatically broadcasts our position to other aircraft and ATC. – Mode C is capable of altitude reporting. Transponder / Altitude Encoding – When the ATC transponder is set to Mode C, the encoding altimeter supplies the transponder with a series of pulses, identifying the flight level at which the aircraft is flying. – Transponders, when installed, must be ON at all times when operating in controlled airspace; altitude reporting is required by regulation in Class B and Class C airspace and inside a 30-mile circle surrounding the primary airport in Class B airspace. Altitude reporting should also be ON at all times. (More information in FAR 91.215(b)) – An electronic flight instrument display can greatly aid in situational awareness. Electronic Flight Instrument Display – The PA-28-181 G1000 includes a PFD in which everything for an approach can be accomplished. (GPS) Global Positioning System – The GPS is a satellite-based radio navigation system that broadcasts a signal that is used by receivers to determine precise position anywhere in the world. – Three elements: space, control, and user – Space consists of 24 satellites orbiting in 6 orbital planes 60 degrees apart at 11,000 miles above the earth, always have 5 in view. – Control consists of a master ground station, 5 monitoring stations, and 3 antennas. These stations are distributed around the earth to allow continual monitoring in communications with satellites – User is our aircraft onboard GPS antenna and receiver. – The GPS constellation broadcast a code that aircraft equipment process to obtain satellite position and status, this is called pseudo range. By knowing the precise location of each satellite and matching timing with the atomic clocks on the satellites the aircraft receiver can accurately measure the time each signal takes to arrive at the receiver and determines aircraft position. GPS – 3 satellites for 2D, 4 for 3D, 5 (4 + baro-aid) for RAIM, 6 (5 + baro-aid) for fault exclusion. – RAIM determines if a satellite is providing corrupted information, without it we have no assurance of the accuracy of the GPS position. – GPS CDI deflection shows distance, unlike a VOR’s CDI, which presents and angular distance of course in degrees. – WAAS utilizes ground stations to measure GPS errors and produce correction signals. Those corrections are broadcasted back to the satellite from which they are bounced back to aircraft’s GPS WAAS receivers to improve accuracy. – Auto pilot is an automatic flight control system that keeps an aircraft in level flight or on a set course. Auto Pilot – The PA-28-181 is equipped with a 2 axis autopilot. – The autopilot controls our pitch, pitch trim, and roll. – It accomplishes this by the use of motorized servos and our control services. (FMS) Flight Management System – A flight management system is an on-board multi-purpose navigation, performance, and aircraft operations computer designed to provide virtual data and operational harmony in the aircraft. – In the PA-28-181 our FMS can help us with: – Flying instrument approach procedures – Reduce workload – In general provide greater situational awareness. Multifunction Display – The PA-28-181 G1000 is equipped with two Garmin Display Units, one for our PFD, located on the left side, and one on the right side which is our MFD. – The MFD and PFD are linked via a high-speed data bus to communicate with each other. – MFD lists many important things such as engine/airframe parameters, instrument approach plates, traffic map, flight plan, etc. Anti-ice / Deicing and Weather Detection Equipment Types of Icing – Structural ice: icing on the airframe – Clear ice-Heavy, hard to detect, and difficult to remove. Forms when water drops freeze slowly, making a smooth sheet of solid ice. Occurs at temperature close to the freezing point by large supercooled water droplets – Rime ice- White and rough ice formed by small super cold water drops freezing quickly. Occurs at lower temperatures than clear ice – Mixed- Combination of both – Instrument ice: structural ice forming over aircraft and instruments and sensors. – Induction ice: ice reducing the amount of air for the engine intake. – Intake ice: blocks the engine intake – Carburetor ice: may form due to the steep temperature drop in the carburetor venture – Frost: Ice crystals caused by sublimation when both temperature/ dew point is below freezing. – **** The PA-28-181 is not certified for flight into known icing**** Detecting Icing conditions in flight – Possible Conditions Detecting Icing – Mushy Controls – Static Comms – Incorrect instrument readings – Engine Roughness – Visible icing on the airframe or Windshield Airframe – For us if we were to pick up icing on the airframe there would be no way to remove it. – We would want to move to a place where we know there is no icing, warmer air, or if we have to we can declare and emergency and receive an amended clearance. – Examples of deicing equipment on other planes would be something like inflatable boots or weeping wings. Inflatable Boots Weeping Wings – For us if we were to pick up icing on the propeller there would be no way to remove it. – We would want to move to a place where we know there is no icing, warmer air, or if we have to we can declare and emergency and receive an amended clearance. – Some aircrafts do have deicing for the propeller. An example of this would be de-ice boots. Propeller – We may pick up induction icing over our air inlet located on the nose of the aircraft, if this were to happen we could identify this potentially by loss of power and or engine roughness. Air Intake – To correct this measure, open the manual alternate air. – With alt. air possible 10% loss of power – Refer to page 3-40 in the POH for exact emergency checklist procedures regarding engine roughness. – Our fuel system provides no anti or deicing protection in our aircraft. Fuel System – Other aircrafts may use something like a fuel system icing inhibitor (FSII) which is a fluid that is added to aviation fuel to prevent the formation of ice crystals within in the fuel system. Pitot-Static System – As a good rule of thumb, flying into any IMC or visible moisture and the OAT is 2°C or less, turn the pitot heat on just to be on the safe side. – Errors to be aware of: – Pitot icing – Air speed indicator will read zero if the ram air is open and pitot blocked – Air speed indicator will indicate an increase in airspeed during climb if ram air is blocked too (mimics altimeter) – Recover by turning on pitot heat – Static source icing – Altimeter will freeze, VSI will go to zero, and airspeed indicator will have an error where air speed will read lower at higher altitudes and higher at lower altitudes (reverse altimeter) Radar Lighting Detection System / Other inflight Weather Systems – PA-28-181 is equipped with a Garmin Data Link which provides a large amount of weather information, this is a package with Sirius XM weather. – Other sources may be your nearest flight service station, air traffic control, it’s important to get a thorough weather briefing prior to each flight. – NEXRAD radar, time delay. Icing situations – You pick up Icing In-Flight, What do you do? – Request lower altitude from ATC – Still, have icing, request to turn around/deviate to get back to non-icing conditions – Still picking up Ice? – Declare an Emergency and land asap! – Landing – No flaps, & higher approach speed to prevent stalling Regulations and Publications Related to IFR Operations – Code of Federal Regulation 14 CFR parts 61, 71, 91, 95, and 97 – 61-Certification: pilots, flight instructors, and ground instructors – 71-Designation of Class A, B, C, D, and E airspace areas; air traffic service routes, and reporting points – 91-General operating and flight rules – 95-IFR altitudes – 97-Standard instrument procedures – Most up to date version – FAA website! – FARs published once every calendar year – Purpose – All of the aeronautical knowledge and skills required to operate in IMC are detailed. – General Content – i. Human/Aerodynamic Factors in Instr. Flight FAA-H-8083-15 Instrument Flying Handbook – ii. The Flight Instruments – iii. Attitude Instrument Flying for Airplanes – iv. Basic Flight Maneuvers used in IMC – v. Attitude Instrument Flying for Helicopters – vi. Navigation Systems – vii. The National Airspace System (NAS) – viii. The Air Traffic Control (ATC) system – ix. IFR Flight Procedures – x. IFR Emergencies – Provides pilots with a vast amount of basic flight info and ATC procedures in the US Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) – The AIM has a comprehensive and useful index to help find topics of interest, such as: – health and medical facts – flight safety – a pilot/controller glossary of terms used in the system – Information on safety accidents, and reporting of hazards – It is Non-Regulatory, and revised every 6months Practical Test Standards (PTS) – FARS specify areas in which knowledge/skills must be shown before the issuance of a certificate. – FARS provide flexibility to permit the FAA to publish PTS’s with the task skills that must be shown. – There are PTS’s for : – Pilots – Flight Instructors – Mechanics – Other Airmen Standards – Can get a copy online on the FAA website. Airport Facility Directory Chart Supplement – A Civil Flight Information Publication published/distributed every 8 weeks by NACO (National Aeronautical Charting Office) – A directory is published for each of seven geographical districts (NW, SW, NC, SC, EC, NE, SE) – The A/FD is an important publication for cross country planning. – All pertinent info regarding airports, FSS contact info, etc. is contained in the AFD. Airport Facility Director Standard Instrument Departures / Terminal Arrivals – Purpose: – To simplify the delivery process & cut down on ATC/pilot communication. – Departure Procedure (SIDs) – Preplanned IFR ATC departure/obstacle avoidance procedures. – They provide a way to depart the airport and transition to the en route phase safely. – Provides obstacle clearance protection, while reducing communications and departure delays. – Published for use in textual and graphic format. – Provides clearance for the aircraft to clear the end of the runway at least 35’ AGL, climbs to 400’ above airport elevation before turning, and climbs at least 200’ per NM. – Unless a higher climb gradient is specified. – Standard Terminal Arrival Routes (STARs) – Preplanned IFR ATC arrival procedures, published for use in textual and graphic format . – Transition from the en route structure to a terminal area fix, where an approach can be made. – Revisions- every 56 days (28 digitally) Example of Departure Procedure Example of Arrival – The objective of IFR en route flight is to navigate within the lateral limits of a designated airway at an altitude consistent with the ATC clearance. – Low En Route – up to 17,999’ MSL En Route Charts – High En Route – 18,000’ MSL and above – To effectively depart from one airport and navigate en route under instrument conditions, a pilot needs the appropriate IFR en route lowaltitude chart(s) – Charts are revised every 56 days. En Route Chart Legend and Symbols En Route Chart – Purpose – Provide the method to descend and land safely in low visibility conditions Standard Instrument Approach Procedure Chart – General Content – Main Sections – Margin Identification- The top and bottom areas on an IAP that depict info about the procedure including airport location and procedure identification – Plan View- Overhead view of an approach procedure on an IAP chart – Profile View- Side view of an approach procedure on an IAP chart illustrating the vertical approach path altitudes, headings, distances, and fixes – Landing Minimums (and notes)- The area on an IAP chart that displays the lowest altitude and visibility requirements for the approach – Airport Diagram- The section of an IAP chart that shows a detailed diagram of the airport including surface features and airport configuration information *also check NOTAMS for Approach on foreflight Example of Standard Instrument Approach Procedure Chart LOGBOOK ENTRIES RELATED TO INSTRUMENT INSTRUCTION Logbook entries/ training records for instrument flight or ground instruction given. – Logbook entries for instrument flight instruction – 14 CRF 61.51 (Pilot logbooks) – Must log each flight lesson – Date – Total time – Departure and arrival locations – Name of safety pilot if one is required – Type of experience – SIC time – PIC time – Instrument flight time – Training time – Requirements of an instrument rating applicant – Receive and log ground training – Receive an endorsement to take the required knowledge test – Receive and log training on the areas of operation – Minimum aeronautical experience – At least 50 hours of cross-country flight time – A total of 40 hours of actual or simulated instrument time – Receive an endorsement to take the required practical test – Aeronautical Experience Required – 61.65 (d) – After the instrument rating applicant has satisfactorily completed the training and acquired the aeronautical Preparation of a experience, the authorized instructor may endorse the recommendation pilot's logbook or training record certifying that s/he is for an instrument prepared to take the required practical test: rating – A.39 – "I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has practical test, received the required training of 14 CFR 61.65(c) including and (d). I have determined that s/he is prepared for appropriate the Instrument Airplane practical test. logbook entry. Signature/Date/CFI number and expiration date Required endorsement of a pilot logbook for satisfactory completion of an IPC – Required endorsement of a pilot logbook for satisfactory completion of an instrument proficiency check (IPC) – Minimum currency requirements to act as PIC under IFR, or in weather conditions less the minimum prescribed for VFR, that must have been logged within the preceding 6 months (14 CFR 61.57(c)(1)): – At least 6 instrument approaches – Holding procedures – Intercepting and tracking courses through the use of navigation systems – If the requirements of 61.57(c)(1) are not met within the prescribed 6 months nor within another 6 calendar months, then, in order to act as PIC under IFR or in weather conditions less than the minimum prescribed for VFR, the pilot must pass an IPC consisting of a representative number of tasks required by the instrument rating practical test Required flight instructor records – Required flight instructor records (14 CFR 61.189) – A flight instructor must sign the logbook of each person to whom that instructor has given flight training or ground training – A flight instructor must maintain a record in a logbook or a separate document that contains the following: – The name of each person whose logbook or student pilot certificate that instructor has endorsed for solo flight privileges, and the date of the endorsement; and – The name of each person that instructor has endorsed for a knowledge test or practical test, and the record shall also indicate the kind of test, the date, and the results – Each flight instructor must retain the records required by this section for at least 3 years Instrument rating endorsements DME Arcs – Can provide transitions to the approach course . – Staying a specified distance from a VOR. – Tune and ident. – Turn right 90 degrees standard rate at 10.5 distance from the VOR if we were doing an 11.0 NM arc. – Use the twist 10, turn 10 method. – So twist the OBS 10, turn 10 degrees heading. – Looking for the needle to center before we twist the OBS 10. – When we reach the radial we want to go inbound or outbound on, well do another 90 degree turn to intercept. What it is Standards – Incorrect tuning and identification procedures Common Errors – Failure to properly set the navigation selector on the course to be intercepted – Failure to use the proper procedures for course DME arc interception and tracking – Improper procedures for intercepting a course or localizer from a DME arc