Intimate Partner Violence

1 Assignment 3 XXXXXX Student ID: XXXXXXX Swinburne University Online CRI10002: Fundamentals of Criminology XXXXXXX XXXXXXX Word count: XXXX 2 Intimate partner violence (IPV) refers to any behaviour within an intimate relationship that is capable of causing psychological, physical, or sexual harm. Intimate relationships are known to involve various commitment levels and include couples living together, marriages, or dating relationships (Stavrou et al., 2016). IPV is recognised as one of the most significant welfare and health issues in Australia and other parts of the globe. IPV occurs in all religious, socio-economic, and cultural groups and is capable of having wide-ranging repercussions on psychological and physical health, social wellbeing, and economic security (Stavrou et al., 2016). Based on the World Health Organization (WHO), a global estimation of 26-28% of ever-partnered women at the age of 15 years and above experienced sexual or physical IPV in their lifetime. Women involved in IPV undergo quite unpleasant experiences, and their recovery depends on the weight of the violent act (Carman et al., 2023). In examining the causation of IPV, this essay argues that while three criminal theories, including Social Learning Theory, Strain Theory, and Feminist Criminology, offer valuable insights, the feminist criminology theory aligns best with the complexity of IPV, emphasising patriarchal structures, societal gender norms, and power imbalances as key factors fostering IPV. IPV is increasingly a concern in Australia as the awareness of IPV increases and IPV is better understood. However, irrespective of the initiation of policies and laws to counter IPV, numerous cases of this violence are never reported to the necessary authorities, which affects the speed of recovery for these victims. The medical practitioners have some specific ways of identifying the victims of IPV. One method is by looking for the physical signs of abuse during examinations, like burns, bruises, fractures, etc. (Mackey, 2017). Doctors must identify these signs since the victims might be reluctant to confess them out of fear of breaking their relationships or marriages. Particular types of injuries or locations of injuries are likely to raise red flags, which demand further investigation. Another way in which medical professionals identify victims of IPV is by examining whether a patient is evasive, nervous, or inconsistent about the root cause of their injuries (Mackey, 2017). If the patient 3 looks frightened, nervous, or inconsistent, it sends signals that they might be hiding something in order to protect their partners. Another way in which the doctors identify the victims of IPV is through screening them with questions related to their relationship status and their home life. Some of the questions include whether they feel controlled, afraid, or degraded by their partner. For instance, if the victims can identify areas where they feel controlled or degraded, then the doctors will be able to know whether they are suffering from IPV. The medical professionals may also identify these victims by being alert to their behaviour for probable red flags. These kinds of behaviours include missing appointments or having partners speak on their behalf. The situation where partners have to speak on their behalf clearly shows that they might be trying to hide some sensitive information. Furthermore, the medical professionals usually try to embrace a non-judgmental or empathetic attitude to make patients feel safe enough to explain themselves (Mackey, 2017). The medical professionals also partner with case managers, social workers, or other specialised services who are likely to assess the situation further and create a safety plan, while also connecting patients with extra support resources in case they need them. There are a range of causes of IPV, among which is the modeling and social learning of abusive behaviours. Social learning theory is essential in explaining this cause and this theory explains that IPV may be learned through observing as well as modeling violent behaviour. Some of the essential ways in which social learning theory explains IPV include, firstly, that growing up in families or homes where violence is common between caregivers or parents is likely to teach children that violence is normal or is a commonly accepted occurrence in relationships (Powers et al., 2020). The children, at their later ages, may come to see violence as a way of addressing conflicts in relationships or expressing emotions. The children therefore grow up learning violence as a way of life in relationships and thus engage it later in their relationships. Exposure to violence in the media or other relationships can also 4 offer an example that violence is a way of dealing with issues in relationships (Dragiewicz et al., 2021). If violent behaviours seem to go unpunished, they are likely to be modeled; hence, people accept them as part of life. This is the reason for the increased cases of IPV in Australia. Besides, based on social learning theory, the reinforcement of violent behaviours is likely to increase their likelihood or repeat (Powers et al., 2020). If violent partners obtain what they want through violence, like submission from the victim or controlling them, violence is reinforced. Equally, if there are no negative consequences from the authorities, friends, families, etc., it is likely to be enforced as permissible. In essence, based on social learning theory, IPV occurs through experiences of violence in life and the perception that the behavior can be used to deal with some relationship problems and it becomes easy for some people to model the behavior. Learning through these experiences and embracing the behavior in life leads to an increase in many cases of IPV in society. A person who grew up in a family where there was IPV is often likely to embrace that behavior in their relationships. Therefore, learning or experiencing IPV in social life promotes the likelihood of replication of the same behavior in generations, which has led to increased cases of IPV. Those who commit these IPVs have learned or experienced it at some point in the social structure. Another cause of IPV, as expressed in the strain theory, is stressors and strains in a relationship. Based on the theory, stressors and strains are likely to lead to anger, frustration, and aggression that could result in violence (Lawson, 2012). A strained person will always be easily offended, even by issues that are not worthy of offense. Strain theory explains IPV in the following ways: Firstly, strains could come into relationships where needs are not settled or expectations are not met (Morgan & Boxall, 2022). In a relationship, meeting needs is very critical, and it attracts strains due to negative words issued by a partner if they are not patient with one another. Unmet needs usually create negative emotions like anger and frustration. Uncontrolled anger and emotions attract violence. Another way in which strain theory 5 explains IPV is that society contributes to it by placing demands and pressures on couples that are likely to create strain, e.g., parenting disagreements, financial stress, unmet sexual needs, or trust violations. Financial stress is the leading cause of strain in intimate relationships, as the couple may be pressured to embrace a certain status of life that they might be unable to afford (Morgan & Boxall, 2022). This desire attracts disagreements in a relationship, which may cause violence. Parenting disagreements also create dissensions in a relationship when opinions differ, or couples fail to agree in a marriage or relationship. Another issue that attracts IPV, as explained in the strain theory, is that when individuals are incapable of meeting demands or achieving their goals, they are likely to resort to illegitimate channels like violence (Lawson, 2012). IPV may also result when an individual resorts to violence as a maladaptive coping mechanism in response to strains in a relationship. Strained people can resort to using violence to release their frustrations concerning unmet goals or expectations in a relationship. In these cases, violence is used to exert control, vent frustration, or release stress. Other factors that can lead to IPV are unemployment, drug or alcohol abuse, witnessing parental violence, poor communication skills, and possessing inaccurate beliefs about relationships. All these factors attract strain or stress, which leads to violence as a way of expressing anger and frustration in life. Generally, based on strain theory, IPV is caused by increased strain or stress that is a result of life pressures. People who undergo these stressful experiences develop violent behaviour toward their partners due to the psychological impacts of stress on their minds. Stressful experiences, as explained in the strain theory, are the leading cause of IPV in present-day generations. Although social learning theory and stain theory explain well the causes of IPV in Australia, feminist criminology theory aligns better with the complexity of the violence. The patriarchal structures in Australia promote IPV. In these structures, men have control and authority over women, which promotes their tendency to micromanage women. Based on Ali and Naylor (2013), entrenched patriarchal structures in Australia are capable of promoting 6 IPV. The patriarchal norms are known to often enforce traditional gender roles that are able to give men dominion or power over women (Kuskoff & Parsell, 2020). The unequal dynamics of power and entitlements are likely to lead to control and violence. The Australian culture also gives men privileges over women, as in patriarchy, masculine identities are connected with qualities like strength, dominance, and toughness, which promote superiority attitudes over women and control or power in relationships (Kuskoff & Parsell, 2020). The extremes of masculinity that emphasise aggression, dominance, and misogyny are risk factors for the perpetration of IPV, as expressed in feminist criminology theory. Feminist criminology theory also argues that victim-blaming discourses promote IPV. The patriarchal norms are often identified as holding women responsible for men's violence by blaming women for provoking men and their failure to placate the frustration or anger of men (Field & Crowe, 2007). Besides, privacy norms around the family, where patriarchal norms support nuclear family ideals that discourage intervention in domestic affairs from outside, encourage IPV. The idea of promoting privacy is believed to silence victims and permit violence to take place unnoticed. Giving a man a superior role in the family also promotes their domination and privileges over other members of the family (Field & Crowe, 2007). Besides, in Australian patriarchal structures, women are dependent on men socially and economically. This makes it challenging for the victims of violence to abandon abusive situations due to limited options for financial security, housing, etc. Based on feminist criminology theory, social and economic policies are capable of trapping women into vicious relationships. Moreover, the institutions shaped by patriarchy fail to offer justice to the victims of IPV. Based on Rose (2015), the institutionalised and historical authority of men over women in both private and public spheres can encourage IPV. The gender bias, low conviction rates, and inability to protect victims encourage the perpetuators. The Australian 7 institutional and legal aspects fail to take crimes against women seriously, which increases the incidence of violence. Based on feminist theory, the imbalances of power in society, in institutions, and in government entities encourage IPV. Feminist theory elucidates that IPV is caused by the increased subordination of women in society by recognising the superiority of men in all spheres of life (Phillips ,2006). Due to this issue, men are likely to see women as inferior and control them. This situation contributes to the ill treatment of women in relationships, and they are likely to be subjected to violence whenever they seem to defy order. The increased cases of IPV in Australia have been contributed to by the exaltation of men over women in society (Walklate et al., 2019). It is nearly impossible to address IPV if the issue of gender equality in all areas of life is not addressed. Many men will always try to command respect from their partners or reinstate their position in the family through violence (Cullen et al., 2021). Violence is used as a tool for evading the truth in a relationship by creating fear. IPV will therefore occur when one partner is deemed superior to another in a relationship and wants to stamp that authority. In conclusion, IPV is a crucial welfare and health issue whose cause can be linked to social learning theory, strain theory, and feminist criminology theory. It is promoted by behaviour learning and experience, strain or stress, and societal structures. IPV is challenging to control as it is tied to societal norms, beliefs, structures, and institutions. The norms, structures, and institutions offer men power, authority, and control over women, which gives room for violence. Legal reforms and education can be the best policies for addressing IPV. Education is key to empowering victims both socially and economically and disseminating knowledge to them concerning their rights. Inadequate information has been the reason many members of society hold beliefs that promote their oppression. Legal reforms are essential in promoting the independence of justice institutions, transparency, and accountability to ensure that the victims of IPV receive justice. Legal reforms can help in changing structures and 8 institutions to include women, which can help fight inequality by promoting policy development in the systems, thus granting justice to all people, especially women.