Structure of Eukaryotic Cells

Cells Structure 0g Eukaryotic Nucleus Nuclear Ribosome Nuclear envelope - Double and entry Nuclear pores Small - holes Nucleoplasm Jelly Chromatin functions - holds - the on that controls materials of that envelope • ✓ • ° 0 • allow Nuclear the Pore molecules like balk of the → of genetic * $• DNA and histones 0 • Nucleoplasm Nucleolus , ◦ . bound ;☆h←"ʳmatñ ← 0 nucleus protein Envelope . o • Consists - exit large of passage - membrane • •• material rRNA manufacture Mitochondria Ribosomes Double membrane extensions - has Matrix Functions lipids site - , for enzymes and ribosomes aerobic of double what Grana of Thylakoid - stroma functions - site DNA DNA Cristae B. membrane comes matrix photosynthesis of , in that and controls out arm chlorophyll where stack second stage of shape glycoprotein Lipids - - - Envelope lamella to Cisternae SER that make hollow structures rounded - . occurs compact membranes Many small Functions . photosynthesis of and .ÉÉÉ¥ÉÉ÷¥÷É¥"nw • Golgi Apparatus Similar size membrane ¥•ᵗ•a:. contains flu -0 filled - proteins Thylakoid Stacks - contains :inwNÑ: Inner proteins respiration Chloroplast - and that Outer membrane ATP of Chloroplast Envelope " membrane inner mitochondria that of production - SA large a Inside - the of _ Matrix exit materials • Cristae entry and controls - a re Proteins Lysosomes ohaarov¥¥ up cisternae . vesicles synthesised transported are called o•ÉI__ , modified packaged are formed 0 • 0 and stored Lumen Newly forming vesicle 0 . Secretary Vesicle Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Elaborate Flattened 3D called sacs Ribosomes function system sheet like og Ribosomes q.jp¥•↓÷ #?-sE-?i?j. : membranes cisternae surface on protein synthesis - Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Elaborate Flattened NO 3D system called sacs ribosomes function Bag membranes cisternae surface on Lipids - sheet like og carbohydrates and stored are synthesised _ transported and [ lysosomes lipid layer potentially Functions Release - - - Matrix harmful enzymes enzymes Complete break Digest extracellular ly down dead worn-out 70s - - organelles Hydrolytic Enzyme prokaryotic functions - • go G- 8D 0 • 00 00 001 8¥ ¥0080.0 L••É%%%%Plasma Membrane • 00 € ✓ Large Subunit eukaryotic ° ◦ 00 cells Ribosomes 80s ,¥ gg⑧°°°88g☒ ① od ⑧ ☐ protein synthesis Transport Protein 0¥ contain digestive enzymes Isolates Membrane Small Subunit Cell Wall ¥•oa:. B. Micro fibrils Thin layer outer functions - - called Proiide > Allows Vacuole fluid filled cellulose of in middle a matrix , :*:*: strength water to pass through plant Tonoplast q .iq#*E%Ea:.-*. :. lysosome % • sac single membrane called tonoplast function Support plant Central - Temporary store for keep cell turgid . amino acids Cell sap Vacuole - - £p ¥•◦Ñ¥¥¥¥¥%%%%§§ ÷÷÷÷¥÷%i÷i÷¥÷÷::%÷¥¥÷¥% i ¥¥ ↳ lamella ; , storage Molecules Prokaryotic They do not Virus Structure And contain ↳ Membrane ↳ Nucleus ↳ Cellulose - bound Plasma Membrane organelles "° Cytoplasm Ribosomes • Plain'd t.%efgggffstructi.ve Role Helps bacteria capsule together stick Protects against immune system Membrane Permeable layer Gculav DNA cell wall Genetic information Made g Moran Physical Plasmids Have for binary Piti wall fission that Flagellum • Circular DNA barrier genes Cell % aid in survival Virus Structure Acellular Non-living Theodora Matrix contain - Coo ↳ ↳ Lipid Envelope Ribosomes f- I = \ membrane me " Proteins : Cytoplasm Plasma " " "" , 0 Capsid . , µ Capsid ↳ Enzyme protein ↳ made ↳ to can from create Have enclosing coat a ↳ Allow layer of proteins attachment virus proteins to identify and Complementary to ↳ Allow membrane ↳ Antigenic variability fusion acids proton cvs Attachment Proteins ↳ nucleic of attach receptor - on to host cell host Attachment proteins change code , causing strains Methods Of resolution minimum distance - magnification - many times how that apart bigger Cells Studying two the image of a objects can appear separate to the actual size specimen is compared ~ Types 0g Microscopes - Type n . Limitations Principle Light Light ' condensed Is sample and passes eyepiece through through objective Electrons pass - onto lens and and , magnified the specimen Transmission Cannot produce 3D image low resolution Complex staining leading Dead specimens Thin 2b = Scanning Electrons Making ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ Use pipette a to Use forceps to put A- do a Use a I a drop of a cell thick sample onto a to to prevent image to The isolate the water Mounted Needle cover slip gas * the lower cover slip → at • bubbles air solution ↳ Cold depending organelles is used to sample ↳ Isotonic ↳ Buffered to enzyme prevent to size on : reduce activity osmotic to prevent movement to cell prevent damage shrinking maintain pH Homogenisation ↳ Ultra Tissue broken ↳ Release ↳ Homogenates of down organelles filtered centrifugation ↳ fragment ↳ Spun ↳ Pellet ↳ ↳ at is filtered varying created artefacts slide Cell fractionation Used to Dead specimens iodine of needle mounted water onto artefacts Slide temporary place to sample Complex staining leading of specimen off surface - A few drops angle an scatter 'm and separated by centrifuge speeds containing the filtered organelle Supernatant is created containing Densest organelle separated first the rest ag the organelles and bursting Slide From Other Cells All Cells Arise Cell Cycle Interphase ↳ GI ↳ S phase to GZ growth - - - and DNA processes £ replication and growth metabolic normal preparation for mitosis § @ Mitosis M G/ Cytokinesis - splits cytoplasm Mitosis Prophase Chromosomes ↳ ↳ condense Nuclear envelope starts Centrioles ↳ move to , becoming visible to break down opposite poles to Metaphase ↳ Spindle fibres completely ↳ Chromosomes line Centromeres ↳ of up on form spindle fibres form the chromosomes equator attach spindle fibres to Anaphase Spindle ↳ fibres contract Chromatids pulled ↳ to Telophase ↳ Spindle fibres break , splitting the centromere opposite poles down around chromosomes Nuclear envelope reform Chromosomes uncoil ready for Interphase ↳ ↳ Mitotic Index Used to ↳ : Identify cancerous ↳ Identify ↳ Cellular repair specific number cells tissue during growth Mitotic index = total of cells number in mitosis of cells injury from Cancer Proto - oncogenes Oncogenes - - provide defective Tumour Suppressor DNA and versions Genes Binary signals - that lead to that genes cause that cell division uncontrolled regulate cell and regulate apoptosis division mitosis f. ) SSI on _ - plasmids replicate and divide creating 2 daughter cells with varying numbers of Plasmids > ✗ / 00 Cell Membrane Structure Glycol ipiu Carbohydrate ÷÷÷÷:÷¥§:* Chain 8888000000000000 9%8800888888000°④000000000 00000%00 • Glycoprotein • "¥%%% %%↑%%÷¥;¥÷::¥É¥ ◦¥¥ ¥00¥ ! • Integral Protein ' 111 !! : § Phospholipid bilayer • Peripheral • Protein Cholesterol Protein Channel Fluid Mosaic Model Model suggests Described as Described that fluid because it are found always is because it mosaic as proteins within , not outside moving contains different molecules , the that phospholipid create a bilayer pattern Phospholipid Makes up the majority function ↳ Allows lipid ↳ Prevents ↳ Makes of membrane to molecules soluble water the soluble enter proteins Extrinsic - Intrinsic - ↳ cell Glycoproteins spans / across spans across Glycolipids face Lipid ↳ Transport ↳ Cell ↳ Receptors surface recognition ↳ Cholesterol Hydrophobic and and Functions Structural support ↳ interact with Function fatty acid stability ↳ Adds ↳ Makes ↳ Helps prevent membrane and entire membrane Protein channels functions ↳ the entering ions flexible membrane leave and less fluid leakage of at high water tails temperatures and ions proteins with carbohydrates Cell recognition Helps cells attach to Maintain stability each other Transport Across Cell Membrane Active Transport Protein Channel ¥ Movement of large polar water soluble 10ns Goes from a low concentration to a concentration , Carrier proteins Hi "w%Hi! , high used are + form ◦ Simple Movement small of US 10h nonpolar , ◦ , lipid Goes from high concentration to Goes through phospholipid bilayer low a a facilitated D ' Doesn't Movement large of from , high a to Uses carrier proteins for specific soluble ions non-specific for open water channels ions Proteins '¥$¥¥ :$ :* ¥ _ ◦ If f US 10h polar . concentration ◦ Goes filled hydrophilic Carrier molecules soluble water Selective ◦ ff " " "" " " " NAHHH water-soluble , ° molecules concentration low and protein ° Transport large Specific shape of Can undergo High polar binding molecules site confirmationat Low • / how • change High channels Osmosis Movement from high water of water potential permeable membrane water Potential 14 ) tendency for water to - Goes [ down the water potential to move a water potential low out y a 0 / gradient facilitated Diffusion transport n-ct.ie Transport Glucose Sodium / Potassium ↳ Higher ↳ Maintains Higher ↳ Sodium pump concentration a of sodium concentration concentrating swim in capillary gradient of ion, , the Sodium Ions www.thanepxnd.a.ae, facilitated Diffusion Lunch • . ATP Higher ↳ ↳ Higher ↳ concentration g glucose Sodium helps Co - in glucose epithelial cells than enter epithelial in the lumen Walk Pump cell og g facilitated diffusion lose in epithelial cells than than ° gunna, ADP + P, Gip , nary • transport concentration semi solution - - across a in capillary µ - Recognition Cell Pathogen - Antigen - And organism that causes disease harm by damaging they cause that proteins - trigger Antigenic Variability Non Specific immune an reduces the Deserve Immune tissues or System producing toxins response effectiveness of Vaccines Mechanisms - Physical Barriers ↳ Skin ↳ provides . Stomach ↳ Eyes kills bacteria contain lysozyme acid tears - arriér a - Phagocytosic I. Phagocyte detects s chemicals produced by pathogens and towards moves them Phagocyte receptors bind to the pathogen Pathogen engulfed and phagosome is formed 4. Lysosomes fuse with the release lysozyme phagosome and 2. 3- 5. is - Pathogen a is then Inflammation ↳ ↳ ↳ digested Histamines are This vasodilation causes Antibodies , released White tissues when which blood cells a re damaged the infected area flow the cells destroy pathogen increases blood plasma and to Specific Defence Mechanisms Lymphocytes - - - Antibodies - white blood B lymphocytes Tclymphccytes Proteins that antigens - - that cells - - Mature move increase in bone in from bone number infections to response marrow and marrow have and in binding sites complementary destroy pathogens Destroys pathogens Using agglutination Agglutination clumps bacteria cells making easier for phagocytes to locate them - matures in the thymus gland to Variable region Light ° . , _ ° chain • binding site ° , - It control "9 - "- • _ Heavy Chain Cell Mediated Response I. Antigen presenting cell antigen from engulfs 2,0° pathogen 2- Pathogen 's antigen the 3. 4- presented on surface Helper T cell Helper 5. Teens binds 1- cell are used to clones in F%→-• - is antigen via mitosis other processes 3 5 pathogen % I ☒ • Antigen presenting Becomes ☒ Pathogen Tree =/ • a memory cell Simulates B cells to divide Stimulates • cell • phagocytosis Activates cytotoxic to kill infected 1- cells cells Humoral Response I. B cell 2. B cell engulfs the presents the antigen antigen EI on 3. Helper B ou 4. B 5. B B binds to cell clones cell can t • Helper Plasma cell " € Been mitosis ¥ ⑦ t ° " Memory → _ + b Cell T cell plasma antibodies secretes dygeventiaie into can memory • " * • antigen differentiate into which cell via 4 → cell cell 6. T cell % 3 Pathogen it 's cell surface ¥±É Balls 2¥ Antibodies cells Types 0g Immunity Passive - - - Active - have - - - . Herd the given antibody broken is down cells memory acting fast - because term short no haven't made them antibodies but have that antibodies Inv -0 Wes long were made because acting slow immunity - when body cells memory term the in in antibody produced sufficiently large proportion a harder it making for of pathogen a been population has the to antigen to response vaccinated spread Vaccines Contain B. B cells cells Plasma dead undergo cells mitosis produce More antibodies % Ethical Issues ↳ ↳ ↳ Testing Risks of Vaccine the triggers primary immune response T cells by activated are that pathogens and into Oygercwtiate plasma and antibodies complementary for a faster immune response cells memory reinfected when animals on the needs vaccination must be tested on be to balanced first humans to with benefits determine toxicity Monoclonal Antibodies Artificially produced from Medicinal Applications ↳ ↳ Pregnancy Detecting ↳ ↳ single B Tumor cell clone Cells n-nt.ge#o / ¥ was €kÉ→ test Locates Block treating - fusion cancer cancer anticancer cancer cells Hybrid Monoclonal cells chemicals that Attack to ☐ annoy " → an . • and ↳ a !m¥⑦ -4T antibodies cause drugs ^ cancer to cells target to divide and ' destroy ¥ . • " ma ' expansion + y + Y Antibody producing - hybrid comas cloned Pregnancy Test Reaction free Fixed antibody Dye Enzyme to hCG complementary Site Test Site antibody complementary Control Site fixed Antibody Dye substrate to hcc ① complementary to free FSU bstrate 8 as ③ u antibody Th ELISA Test Direct Monoclonal antibody Is contains sample will bind it Indirect Antigens well in complementary / f- antigen antibody to in specific antibodies contains sample present a re well bind will it Rinse Rinse Antibody Rinse with reporter enzyme added Monoclonal is bind Enzyme substrate Colour change Colour enzymes antibody antigen antigen Enzyme if complementary with - Rinse added present was to antibodies substrate change antibody complex added complementary is present was HIV 0 Attachment Retrovirus Attachment proteins RNA - allows genetic information - Reverse Eneymes Proteins Transcriptase - to to host virus to attach allow for replication RWA converts to RNA particle binds CDH to receptors on guy, ,p , capsid cells 2. Envelope pierces through 3. Capsid 4. Host to 5. Integrase into 7. host RNA to reverse RNA transcriptase are viral and DNA carries it the viral DNA ◦ DNA polymerase makes mRNA which codes for cell surface Different mRNA makes multi proteins RNA and reverse transcriptase all go up to cell surface All components budogg the cell membrane to , 10 . form immature HIV II. Protease HIV break virus in components , • making Not B inserts the multiple proteins the HIV mature to AIDS used nucleus cuts and HIV leads T helper a re . How • viral proteins and to ribosomes goes 8. Attachment to made and proteins go 9 fuses released is DWA attaches to host 's the and RNA convert Integrase to G. nucleotides and cell membrane and virial digested is • • 1- helper to / ¥g*¥% DNA Limo I. HIV ☒ a into cell quantity enough 1-helper cells cells reduced to stimulate meaning less antibody production Non-threatening infections are now deadly