Chapter 2 Notes - Intro to Psychology

ntroduction to Psychology Chapter 2: Psychological Research Module 4: The Scientific Method -scientific method: the approach used by psychologists to systemically acquire knowledge and understanding about behavior and other phenomena of interest. -four main steps: 1. identifying questions of interest 2. formulating an explanation 3. carrying out research designed to support or refute the explanation 4. communicating the findings Theories: Specifying Broad Explanations -psychologists start by identifying questions of interest. -ask questions about the nature and causes of behaviors. -theories are broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest. -provide a framework for understanding the relationships among a set of otherwise unorganized facts or principles. -are established on the basis of a careful study of the psychological literature to identify earlier relevant research and previously formulated theories, as well as general knowledge of the field. Hypothesis: Crafting Testable Predictions -hypothesis: a prediction stated in a way that allows it to be tested. -stem from theories. -help test the underlying soundness of theories. -operational definition: the translation of a hypothesis into specific, testable procedures that can be measured and observed in an experiment. -theories and hypotheses allow them to make sense of unorganized, separate observations and bits of data. -theories and hypotheses allow psychologists to move beyond known facts and make deductions about unexplained phenomena and develop ideas for future investigations. Module 5: Conducting Psychological Research -research: systematic inquiry aimed at the discovery of new knowledge. -is a central ingredient of the scientific method. -descriptive research: designed to systematically investigate a person, group or patterns of behavior. Archival Research -archival research: existing data, college records, online databases, and newspaper articles, are examined to test a hypothesis. -inexpensive means of testing a hypothesis. -someone has already collected the basic data. Naturalistic Observation -the investigator observes some naturally occurring behavior and does not make a change in the situation. -we get a sample of what people do in their “natural habitat”. Survey Research -a sample of people chosen to represent a larger group of interest (population) is asked a series of questions about their behavior, thoughts, or attitudes. -has several pitfalls. -if the people who are surveyed not representative of the broader population of interest, the results of the survey will have little meaning. -respondents may not want to admit to holding socially undesirable attitudes. -people may not even be consciously aware of what their true attitudes are or why they hold them. The Case Study -case study: an in-depth, intensive investigation of a single individual or a small group. -often includes psychological testing. -psychological testing: a procedure in which a carefully designed set of questions is used to gain some insight into the personality of the individual or group. -goal is to use the insights gained from the study of a few individuals to improve our understanding of people in general. Correlational Research -variables: are behaviors, events, or other characteristics that can change, or vary, in some way. -correlation research: two sets of variables are examined to determine whether they are associated or “correlated.” -positive correlation: indicates that as the value of one variable increases, we can predict that the value of the other variable will also increase. -negative correlation: tells us that as the value of one variable increases, the value of the other decreases. -when two variables are strongly correlated with each other, we are tempted to assume that one variable causes the other. -the inability of correlational research to demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships is a crucial drawback to its use. Experimental Research -carrying out experiments is the only way psychologists can establish cause-and-effect relationships. -formal experiment: the researcher investigates the relationship between two (or more) variables by deliberately changing one variable in a controlled situation and observing the effects of that change on other aspects of the situation. -experimental manipulation: the change that the researcher deliberately makes in an experiment. Experimental Groups and Control Groups -at least two groups will be compared. -one group will receive some special treatment, and another will receive either no treatment or a different treatment. -experimental group: any group that receives a treatment. -control group: a group that receives no treatment. -without a control group, we couldn’t be sure that some other variable wasn’t causing the changes observed. Independent and Dependent Variables -independent variable: the condition is manipulated by an experimenter. -independent of the actions of those taking part in an experiment. -dependent variable: measured in a study. -expected to change as a result of the experimenter’s manipulation of the independent variable. -dependent on the actions of the participants or subjects. Random assignment of participants -the final step: properly assigning participants to a particular experimental group. -random assignment to condition: participants are assigned to different experimental groups or “conditions”, on the basis of chance and chance alone. Were Latane and Darley Right? -confederate: an actor employed by a researcher who participates in a psychological experiment, pretending to be a participant. -researcher trains them to act in a particular way during the experiment. -significant outcome: indicates that the findings are statistically meaningful, making it possible for researchers to feel confident that they have confirmed their hypothesis. -researchers can determine whether a numeric differences is a real difference or is due merely to chance. Module 6: Critical Research Issues -psychologist must make choice about the type of study to conduct, the measures to take and the most effective way to analyze the results. -even after, they must still consider several critical issues. The Ethics of Research -psychologists argue that deception is sometimes necessary to prevent participants from being influenced by what they think a study’s true purpose is. -a small portion of research involves deception. -research has the potential to violate the rights of participants, psychologists are expected to adhere to a strict set of ethical guidelines aimed at protecting participants. -guidelines: -protection of participants from physical and mental harm. -the right of participants to privacy regarding their behavior. -the assurance that participation in research is completely voluntary. -the necessity of informing participants about the nature of procedures before their participation in the experiment. -all experiments must be reviewed by an independent panel before being conducted. -psychologist must follow informed consent. -participants, before participation in an experiment, must sign a document affirming that they have been told the basic outlines of the study and are aware of what their participation will involve, what risks the experiment may hold, and the fact that their participation is purely voluntary, and they may terminate it at any time. -Exploring Diversity -college student tend to be from Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic cultures. Should Animals be Used in Research? -researchers who use nonhuman animals in experiments have their own set of exacting guidelines to ensure that the animals do not suffer. -must make every effort to minimize discomfort, illness, and pain. -research with animals has provided psychologists with information that has profoundly benefited humans. -use of research using nonhumans is controversial, involving complex moral and philosophical concerns. Threats to Experimental Validity: Avoiding Experimental Bias -experimental bias: factors that distort the way the independent variable affects the dependent variable in an experiment. -one of the most common forms of experimenter bias, relates to the unintentional transmission of expectations to participants by the experimenter. -to guard against participant expectations biasing the results of an experiment, the experimenter may try to disguise the true purpose of the experiment. -psychologists typically use a procedure in which all the participant receive a treatment. -those in the control group receive only a placebo -placebo: false treatment. -both groups are kept in the dark about whether they are getting a real or a false treatment, any differences in outcome can be attributed to the quality of the drug and not to the possible psychological effects of being administered a pill or other substance. -with keeping the groups in the dark, researchers can more accurately assess the effects of the drug. Becoming an Informed Consumer of Psychology -because the field is based on an accumulated body of research, must scrutinize thoroughly the methods, results, and claims of researchers. -most important questions to ask: -What as the purpose of the research? -studies should evolve from a clearly specified theory. -How well was the study conducted? -consider who the participants were, how many were involved, what methods were employed, and what problems the researcher encountered in collecting the data. -Are the results presented fairly? -statements must be assessed on the basis of the actual data they reflect and their logic.