SNC2D Grade 10 Science - Exam Study Notes

SNC2D Grade 10 Science – Exam Study Notes COVALENT BONDING – Sharing e- between two NONMETALS – – Sharing of electron(s) from two non-metals (SHOWN BY CIRCLES) IONIC BONDING – Occurs between a METAL + NON-METAL – Transfer of electron(s) from the metals to the non-metals (SHOWN BY USING ARROWS INDICATING THE TRANSFER OF e-) >Naming ionic compound< – To name put name of CATION/METALS First then the ANION/NONMETAL “root name and replace ending with “ide” e.g. Oxygen -> Oxide, Sulfur -> Sulphide/SulFide, Chlorine -> Chloride, Fluorine, Fluoride >Writing Formulas< – Write chemical symbol for both metals and nonmetals – Write atom charge – CRISS-CROSS METHOD MULTIVALENT METALS – Elements that have MORE THAN ONE POSSIBLE CHARGE e.g. Fe+2,+3 Co+2,+3 Mg+2,+3,+4,+6 – To distinguish use ROMAN NUMERALS (1:I, 2:II, 3:III, 4:IV, 5:V, 6:VI, 7:VII, 8:VIII) e.g. Au2O3 Gold(III)Oxide MOLECULAR COMPOUND – Compound containing two non-metals – Must use preFix naming system (mono, di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa, hepta, octa, nona, deca) e.g Co – mono carbon dioxide >Special molecular compounds< – NH3 – Ammonia, O3 – Ozone, CH4 – Methane, H2O2 – Hydrogen Peroxide, NH4 – Ammonia POLYATOMIC IONS – Two different atoms combined together to make an ion – Treat as anions or cations – Combining cations with polyatomic ions – keep Polyatomic ions in BRACKETS e.g. K+(SO4)2- Potassium Sulfate K2(SO4)1 – DO NOT KEEP BRACKETS if subscript outside is 1 K2SO4 SNC2D1 Exam Notes COUNTING ATOMS – Subscript indicates # of atoms its beside – Subscript outside of brackets on the right is multiplies (EXPANSION/DISTRIBUTIVE LAW) – CoefFicients in the front of a compound is multiplied through last of each type of atom – e.g. Copper(II)Chloride Cu2+Cl- CuCl2 Cu:1 Cl:2 BALANCING EQUATIONS – Law of conservation of mass – THE AMOUNT INPUT = AMOUNT OUTPUT e.g 2NA + MgCo3 Na : 1 2 (NH4)2 SO3 + Ca(OH)2 NH4 : 2 SO3 : 1 Ca : 1 Mg : 1 C:1 O:3 -> Na3Co3 + Mg Na:2 C:1 O:3 Mg:1 e.g ammonium sulFate + Calcium hydroxide -> CaSO3 + 2NH4OH Ca :1 SO3:1 NH4:12 OH:12 (PRODUCTS) =Things made in a reaction OH : 2 (REACTANT) =Things put into a reaction CHEMICAL REACTION – A process in which some REACTANTS(S) undergo a change to become NEW PRODUCTS STATES OF MATTER (s) = Solid (l) = Liquid (aq) = Aqueous (substance dissolved in water) (g) = Gas DIATOMIC GAS HOFBrINCL H2, O2, F2, Br2, I2, N2, Cl2 TYPES OF REACTION A. SYNTHESIS – Two or more reactants reacted to give ONE product GENERAL FORMULA: A + B -> AB e.g. Carbon + Oxygen gas -> Carbon Dioxide C(s) + O2 -> CO2(g) B. DECOMPOSITION – One REACTANT breaks down into two or more PRODUCTS GENERAL FORMULA: XY -> X +Y e.g. ammonium nitrate -> dinitrogen monoxide + water SNC2D1 Exam Notes NH4NO3 -> N2O + H20 C. SINGLE DISPLACEMENT REACTION – A single reactant added to some ionic compound where the CATION(METAL) switches place or the ANION(METAL) switches place GENERAL FORMULA: A + BC -> B +AC D + BC -> C + BD e.g. Fluorine gas + sodium iodine F2(g) + 2NaI -> I2(g) + 2NaF F:2 I:2 Na : 2 Na : 2 I:2 F:2 <- First two switches <- First and Last switches (HALOGEN ONLY) e.g. potassium solid + aqueous copper(II) acetate 2K(s) + Cu(CH3COO)2(aq) -> Cu(s) + 2KCH3COO K:12 K:12 Cu : 1 Cu : 1 Ch3C00 : 2 Ch3COO : 1 2 D. DOUBLE DISPLACEMENT REACTION – An ionic compound reacted with another ionic compound – The CATIONS Switches place GENERAL FORMULA: AB + XY -> AY+ AB e.g beryllium nitride + rubidium carbonate Be3N2 + 3Rb2Co3 -> 3BeCo3 +2Rb3N Be : 3 Be: 13 N:2 N:12 Rb : 2 6 Rb : 3 6 Co3 :13 Co3 :13 COMBUSTION REACTION – Reaction between a hydrogen (something containing carbon and hydrogen) and oxygen gas – will release energy as product COMPLETE COMBUSTION – When there is MORE than enough OXYGEN – Only CARBON DIOXIDE and WATER are produced GENERAL FORMULA: Cx Hy + O2(g) -> H2O +O2(g) (x, y are possible coefFicients) e.g. C5H12 + 8O2 -> 5CO2 + 6H2O <- Must put the STATE OF MATTER 1. Balance Carbons 2. Balance Hydrogen 3. Balance Oxygen C:5 H : 12 O : 2 16 C:15 H : 2 12 O : 3 8 16 INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION – Combustion reaction that takes place with insufFicient ( not enough) oxygen – Will produce CO2, Co, C(s) [soot] and/or H2O – In an incomplete combustion, can have up to all four products or any combinations of them SNC2D1 Exam Notes GENERAL FORMULA: Cx Hx + O2 -> CO2 + Co + C(s) + H20 PH SCALE – pH stands for “Power of Hydrogen” – Measures the acidity of solutions using a numerical scale More acidic – more H+ ions, few OH- ions More basic – few H+ ions, more OH- ions Comparing Acidity e.g. Hydrogen acid has pH of 2.0 and sodium hydroxide has pH of 10 – Hydrogen acid is more acidic by a factor of 1010-2 = 108 = 100000000 more ACIDS – An acid is deFined as any compound that dissolves in aqueous solution to form H+ ions >Properties of acid< – Sour – Litmus = Red – Reacts with carbonate to produce bubbles of CO2(g) – Reacts with metals to produce H2(g) BASES – An base is deFined as any compound that dissociates in aqueous solution to form H+ ions >Properties of base< – Bitter – Litmus = Blue – Slippery – React with oils and grease NEUTRALIZATION REACTION – Neutralization reactions are called acid/base reactions – The reactants of neut. are acids and bases – The product of neut. are H2O and Salt (ionic) GENERAL EQUATIONS: AB + CD -> AD + CB acid + base -> water + salt NAMING BINARY ACIDS Rules: 1. If you have a BINARY (two element) compound with at least one HYDROGEN and is in AQUEOUS(aq) state then it is binary acid 2. Use “hydro” preFix 3. Add root of the anion 4. add “ic acid” sufFix e.g. HI(aq) – Hydroiodic acid NAMING OXO ACIDS – Oxyacids are acids that contain a polyatomic with OXYGEN SNC2D1 Exam Notes – Oxyacids contain AT LEAST 3 different elements with Hydrogen, Oxygen and in (aq) state Rules: 1. If you have an Oxyacid, containing HYDROGEN, OXYGEN containing polyatomic ions, and in aqueous state, its an oxyacid 2. Keep root of element in polyatomic ion 3. Add “ic acid” sufFix e.g. HCH3COO(aq) – Acetic acid PHYSICAL PROPERTY – Characteristics of a substance that can be determined without changing the composition of the substance CHEMICAL PROPERTY – Describes the ability for a substance to undergo changes in composition that would result in new substance SNC2D1 Exam Notes UNIT 2 – BIOLOGY ( Tissues, Organs, and systems of living things) ORGANELLES IN A CELL (BOTH) CYTOPLASM – Suspends all the organelles in a cell, in a jelly like substance CELL MEMBRANE – A Flexible double-layered, semi-permeable membrane, which supports the cell and acts as a gatekeeper NUCLEUS – The “brain” of the cell, a spherical structure where genetic information (DNA) is stored on chromosomes MITOCHONDRIA – Also called “power plants”, convert stored energy into a usable form ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM – A 3-D network, transports materials, such as proteins through cell, attach directly to nucleus and extends to the cell membrane GOLGI BODIES – Collects & process materials to be removed from the cell, makes secrete mucus VACUOLES – A single layered membrane enclosing Fluid in a sac, removes unwanted substance, maintains internal Fluid to keep shape, stores water, fat and food (PLANTS ONLY) CELL WALL – Made of a rigid strong material called cellulose, provides support and protection from physical injury LARGE VACUOLES – Plants have one large vacuole but functions are same as animal cells CHLOROPLAST – Contains chlorophyll that helps photosynthesis, gives leaves their green color, similar functions as mitochondria REASONS FOR CELL DIVISION – To GROW – To REPRODUCE – To REPAIR CELL DIVISION FOR REPRODUCTION Produce genetically identical offspring from "one" parent through asexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction involves "fusing" two gametes to create offspring that contain both parents' genetic material. parents SNC2D1 Exam Notes CELL DIVISION FOR GROWTH – CELLS need to divide – Absorbs nutrients quicker (distance) – Energy efFiciency – Amount used > amount gained is bad – Cell chemical function – Releases waste quicker Movement of substance Diffusion – A transport mechanism for moving chemical into and out of the cell, from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration – i.e. when air freshener is sprayed into the air, it diffuses throughout the room Osmosis – The movement of a Fluid, USUALLY WATER, across a membrane towards an area of high solute concentration – – i.e Apple juice solute with water CELL CYCLE INTERPHASE – Carries out usual functions, but make copy of its DNA & chromosomes for the next step in cell division Chromosomes – structure in nucleus containing DNA – Creates sister chromatids after duplication (Identical copy – sister chromatids) Centromere holds the sister chromatids together MITOSIS – (FOUR PHASES – PMAT) FIRST STAGE OF CELL DIVISION 1. PROPHASE (PROACTIVE) (meatball and spaghetti with fries combo) – DNA condenses, turns visible – Centrioles (organelles that help duplicate CANDY) move to opposite ends – Nuclear membrane weakens/breaks – Spindle Fibers grows from centrioles 2. METAPHASE (MIDDLE) (Ghostbusters) – Sister Chromatids move to the “MIDDLE” of the cell – Centrioles pull spindle Siber in opposite direction 3. ANAPHASE (APART) (Snake of war) – Sister chromatids are pulled, splitting centromere – Centroids pull spindle Siber in opposite direction 4. TELOPHASE (TWO) (Tea time with 2) – Chromatids divide into two opposite ends of the cell – Two new nuclear membrane forms around chromatids – Spindle Siber disappears – Chromosomes thins CYTOKINESIS – SECOND STAGE OF CELL DIVISION – Cells get cut in half dividing the cytoplasm – For plant cells: A cell wall grows inwards to cut the cell SNC2D1 Exam Notes CANCER – A broad group of diseases that result in uncontrolled cell division TUMOR – A mass of cell that continue to grow and divide without any function in the body BENIGN TUMOR – Tumor that does NOT affect surrounding tissues except for physically crowding MALIGNANT TUMOUR – Tumor that INTERFERES with functioning of surrounding cells; a cancerous tumour METASTASIS – Cancer cells BREAKING AWAY from original tumor elsewhere in the body MUTATION – A random change in the DNA CARCINOGEN – Any environmental factor that causes cancer STRUCTURE OF A CANCER CELL – Cancer cells grow and divide in the mitosis stage quicker than normal cells – less time for cancer cells to duplicate its DNA – Prophase and telophase seems quicker in Cancer cells NORMAL CELL – Large cytoplasm – Single nucleus – Singe nucleolus – Fine chromatin CANCER CELL – Small cytoplasm – Multiple Nucleus – Multiple and large nucleolus – Coarse chromatin SPECIALIZED CELLS – A cell that can perform a speciFic function 8 IMPORTANT SPECIALIZED CELL BONE CELLS – Grows and repairs bones, collects calcium from digest. system, builds up bones around themselves, creates skeleton WHITE B CELLS – Moves like an amoeba, engulf bacteria and [ights infections FAT CELLS – Have larger vacuoles, stores fat molecules, stores cells chemical energy RED B CELLS – Contains hemoglobin that carries O2 in blood, smooth cells allowing passage – through B cells NERVE CELLS SNC2D1 Exam Notes – Long, thin and have many branches, conduct electrical impulses to move body SKIN CELLS – Layers of S.C Sit tightly, covers outside of body to protect cell inside and reduce water loss MUSCLE CELLS – Arranged in bundles called muscle Fibers, can contract to make Sibre shorter and move bone SPERM CELLS – Move independently, carries DNA from male parent to join egg in the female parent HIERARCHY OF CELLS – An organizational structure with more complex or important things on Top of the “pyramid” TISSUE – Collection of similar cells that have a particular, BUT not limited functions (i.e. Heart tissues) ORGAN – A structure of different tissues working to perform a complex bodily function (i.e. lungs) ORGAN SYSTEM – Consist of one or more organs working together to perform a major VITAL function (i.e. digest system) ORGAN SYSTEM TISSUES (4 MAIN TISSUES) (CENM) TISSUE EXAMPLE DESCRIPTION FUNCTION EPITHELIAL skin, lining of nose and digestive system The sheet of tightly packed cells covering the surface of internal organs – Protects from – dehydration Decreases friction on surface Bones, CONNECTIVE tendons blood Various cells held – Support together by liquid, solid and – Insulation or gel (KNOWN AS Structure MATRIX) – Bundles of long cell called muscle Fiber that contains proteins Movement allowing contracting and elongating MUSCLE Striated, smooth, cardiac muscles NERVOUS Long cell of Sine Brain, spinal – Sensory branches at end that cord, sensory – Communicating conduct electrical nerves – Bodily functions impulses CELLULAR DIFFERENTIATION: Process which cells become specialized to perform speciFic functions SNC2D1 Exam Notes STEM CELL AND CELLULAR RESPIRATION – An undifferentiated cell that can be divided to form specialized cells – The umbilical cord contains the most/rich sources of stem cells – TWO TYPES OF STEM CELLS EMBRYONIC – Can differentiate into any kind of cell TISSUES – “Adult stem cells” exist within specialized cells i.e. Bone marrow -> blood DIGESTIVE SYSTEM – Where food energy and nutrients move from being outside of the body to inside of the body – It takes in food, digest food and excretes the remaining waste. DIGESTIVE TRACT Epithelial cells – Goblets cells producing mucus, protects from digestive enzymes and acids Mucus tissues Nerves Villi – Located in epithelial cells (Sigure like projection) that increase absorption of nutrients MOUTH ● – Mechanically breaks down food by chewing and chemically with saliva containing enzymes (such as amylase that breaks down starch) ● – Food is then passed on to esophagusESOPHAGUS ● – Muscular tube connects mouth to stomach and muscle move food down which is controlled by nerves ● – Passed onto stomachPeristalsis – the process of moving food through the esophagus into the stomach with the help of muscles STOMACH – The stomach holds food, churns it – Lines with cells that produce digestive enzymes and acids – Muscles contract to mix with food SMALL INTESTINE – 6m long – Most digestion occurs here – Smooth muscles – Nutrient diffuse through wall and into blood vessels LARGE INTESTINE – 1.5m long – Larger diameter – Primarily water absorption – Waste material passed on to rectum RECTUM – Storage feces and water absorption – Waste excreted through anus ACCESSORY ORGANS – Organs producing digestive enzymes that help break down food faster LIVER – Produces enzymes and bile for small intes. – Bile help break down fat GALL BLADDER SNC2D1 Exam Notes – Produces enzymes – Stores bile between meals PANCREAS – Produces insulin to regulate glucose in blood CIRCULATORY SYSTEM ● – Carries nutrients to cell from intestine, O2 from lungs and CO2, waste away from cell to the lung and kidney respectively ● – Regulates body temperature ● – Carries chemical message between parts of the bodyHEART – Pumps blood through arteries and branch into smaller vessels BLOOD – Connective tissue that circulates through the body and made of 4 parts Cardiac Muscle Tissues Nerve Tissues Connective Tissues ● – Only found in heart ● – All tissues contracted at the – Controls the rate of – Protects the heart beat heart ● – same time ● – No required though to moveBumps blood Red Blood Cells White Blood Cells Platelets (erythrocytes) (leukocytes) ● – Contai ns hemo globin (trans ports O2 ● – throug hout the body Produ ced in bone ● – marro w No nucleu s ● – Makes up 1% of blood ● – volum e ● – Have a nucleu sFight s infecti on by recogn izing and destro y bacteri as and viruse s Plasma ● – Makes up less than 1% ● – of blood volum eHelp s clots blood ● – Protein rich Fluid that ● – carries blood cellsMakes up 1/2 of blood ● – volume Clear BLOOD VESSELS (three types) RESPIRATORY SYSTEM – Provides O2 needed by the body and removes CO2 – Works together with the circulatory system Process- Air goes through the nose and mouth and Filtered/trapped by tiny hairs and mucus ● – Air then passes through the pharynx into the trachea(hold by rings of CARTILAGE that are strong and Flexible) ● – epithelial cells in trachea produces mucus and have cilia to remove any leftover material ● – After gets separated into two branches [Bronchus (one) bronchi (two) Arteries (away) Viens – Carries blood away from the – heart THICKER WALLS withstand pressure to Capillaries (connects) ● – Carries blood into the heart ● – have valves to prevent Slowing ● – backflow pressure, thinner walls than arteries ● – Connects arteries and veins ● – THIN WALLS allow O2 andnutrient to diffuse from ● – capillary into body tissuesCO2 and other waste diffuse out SNC2D1 Exam Notes – Then divides into smaller tubes called bronchioles Gas exchange – Each bronchioles become tiny sacs called alveoli and also where gas exchange occurs – Each alveolus is surrounded by capillaries where O2 and CO2 diffuse through (the capillary and alveolar walls – The main purpose of the respiratory system – Each alveolus is surrounded by capillaries NERVOUS SYSTEM – The organ system consisting the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves in which senses the environment and coordinates appropriate response CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM – The part of the nervous system consisting the brain and spinal cord PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM – The part that consist of the nerves that connect the body to the central nervous system THREE TYPES OF NERVES FOUND – Nerves that control the voluntary muscles – Nerves that carry information form the sensory organs, such as the eyes, ears, tastebuds, and touch receptors to brain – Nerves that regulate involuntary functions (breathing, heartbeat, and digestion) NERVES ARE PROTECTED BY – Central N.S are shielded by bones – Skull protects the brain – Spine guards the spinal cord – Cerebral Spinal Fluid (CSF) NERVE CELL MYELIN SHEATH: Increases signal transfer through the nerves ● ● ● ● ● – – – – – Neurons are cells that make up a nervous tissue Nerves allow two way Flow of info Neurons TRANSMIT info only in ONE DIRECTION Nerves cells don’t easily regenerate, only a small gap 1 millimeter Nerves are a bundle of neutrons surrounded by connective tissues SENSORY RECEPTORS – Special cells that receive input from out external environment, signaling the nerves to transmit a message – eyes, ears, mouth, nose, muscles and skin are sensory receptors MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM – Organ system made of bones and skeletal muscle ROLES OF THE SKELETON – Provides supports and place for muscles to attach to – Protects internal organs – Contains BONE MARROW and produces RBC and WBC – Three connective tissues (bone, ligament and cartilage) BONES – Bones are made of bone cells, Ca and P and collagen Fibers SNC2D1 Exam Notes – Bones contain nerves and blood vessels and most tissues are not living LIGAMENTS – Tough and elastic – Joints and holds bones together CARTILAGE – Cartilage cells contain collagen – Prevents damage to the end of bones (friction) – Strong and Flexible to support the bone – Made of long collagen Sibre MUSCLE STRUCTURE – Contain long muscle cells that make muscle Fibers – special protein that allows muscles to contract (becomes shorter and thicker) – Muscle types – skeletal – voluntary, smooth muscle – involuntary, Cardiac – involuntary PLANT SYSTEM ROOT SYSTEM – grows below ground, anchors the plant and absorbs water and minerals from the soil and stores food SHOOT SYSTEM – made of the stem, leaves and Slower – conducts photosynthesis – produces Flowers for reproduction LEAVES – main area of photosynthesis, used for support, protection and reproduce – leaves can be used as food (lettuce, tea) wax and medicine and livestock food FLOWER – Contains male or female structure, or both – Male produces pollen grain, female produce eggs – Eggs are fertilized by pollen, producing seeds which would become plants – Flowers are used as food (rice, wheat, corn, vanilla, chocolate) and different medicines STEM – Supports the branch, leaves and Slower and transports materials like water and nutrients through the plant – Stems are used as food (sugar cane, potatoes), paper products, cork, linens and medicines SYSTEM AND TISSUES IN PLANT CHARACTERISTIC OF A PLANT – generally green, caused by chlorophyll in chemical called chloroplast – cannot move, has a root that anchors them in place PHOTOSYNTHESIS ● – plants make their food through photosynthesis in which tissues in leaves use carbon dioxide, water and light energy to produce glucose and oxygen ● – glucose helps plant grow SNC2D1 Exam Notes EQUATION: CO2 + H20 + (light energy) -> C6H12O6 + O2 + energy (ATP) FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS VS ANIMALS (SIMILARITY) – Exchange gasses with their surroundings – More water and nutrients around within their bodies – Have a way of reproducing TYPES OF PLANT TISSUES – THREE TYPES (D.V.G) DERMAL – Forms the outer part of the plant – Includes both epidermal and periderm tissues – Epidermal tissues – Cells covering all non-woody surface of a plant – Periderm tissues – tissues on a surface of a plant which produces bark on stem and root VASCULAR – Forms the area that transports water, minerals and nutrients in the plant – Similar to a network of tubes that reaches from the roots up the stalk, and thought the leaves – Two types of vascular tissues – Xylem – Vascular tissues in a plant that transports water and dissolved minerals form the roots to the leaves and stem. Prokaryote (NO NUCLEUS ORGANELLES) just a rigid hollow tube, DEAD – Phloem – Vascular tissues in plants that transport dissolved food and minerals and hormones throughout the plant. Eukaryote (are alive when mature and functioning) GROUND – Makes the other structure of the plant – Filters between the dermal and the vascular tissues – Manufactures nutrients by the process of photosynthesis – Store carbohydrate in roots, provide storage and support in stem MERISTEMATIC CELLS – an undifferentiated plant cell that can divide and differentiate to form specialized cells SPECIALIZED TISSUES AND CELLS IN A LEAF PALISADE LAYER – A layer of tall, closely packed cells containing chloroplast, just below the upper surface of a leaf; a type of ground tissue SPONGY MESOPHYLL – A region of loosely packed cells containing chloroplast in the middle of a leaf; a type of ground tissue CUTICLE – Layer of wax on the upper and lower surfaces of a lead blocking diffusion of water and gas STROMAE (Plural: Stomata) – An opening in surface of leaf allowing the exchange of gas GUARD CELLS – One pair of special cells in the epidermis that control opening and closing of each stomata PLANT GROWTH Apical Meristems – Undifferentiated cells at the tips of plant roots and shoots; cells that divide, enabling the plant to grow longer and develop specialized tissues SNC2D1 Exam Notes Lateral Meristems – undifferentiated cells under the bark in the stems and roots of woody plants; cells that divide, enabling the plant to grow wider and develop specialized tissues in the stem UNIT 3 – PHYSICS (Optics) THE PRODUCTION AND REFLECTION OF LIGHT INTRODUCTION OF LIGHT – Light travels at 3.00 x 108 m/s in vacuum, 2.26 x 108 m/s in water – Speed of light travels at an equivalent to 7.5 rotations around earth in 1 second PROPERTIES OF LIGHT – Travels in a STRAIGHT LINE – Travels at the SPEED OF LIGHT – Light energy transmitted through RADIATION – Is any ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES a human can detect – Appears as a BEAM MEDIUM – any physical substance through which energy can be transformed RADIATION – a method of energy transfer that does NOT require a MEDIUM; the energy travels at SL ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES – a wave that has both electric and magnetic parts, does not require a medium and travels at the SL – Spectrum (RMIVXG) – Radio, Microwave, Infrared, Visible, X-Ray, Gamma Ray LUMINOUS OBJECT – Produces its own light NON-LUMINOUS OBJECT – Does not produce its own light TYPES OF LIGHT PRODUCTION • Incandescence – Production of light from high temperature – i.e. incandescent light bulb, candle, sparks • Electric Discharge – Production of light from electricity passing through gas – i.e. neon sign, Geissler tube, Lighting • Phosphorescence – production of light from absorption of UV light resulting in visible light – i.e. glow-in-dark-stickers • Fluorescence – Immediate light emission from absorption of UV light – i.e. highlighter, clothing, Fluorescence light • Chemiluminescence – Direct light production from chemical reaction, no heat – i.e. glow-sticks • Bioluminescence – Chemical light procession within an organism – i.e. glow worms, SireSly • Triboluminescence – Production of light from friction of scratching, crushing, rubbing certain crystal – i.e. quartz TERM OF REFLECTIONS • Light ray – line representing the direction and path the light travels • Geometric optics – uses of light rays to determine the behavior of light when strikes object SNC2D1 Exam Notes • Incident light – light emitted from a source that strikes an object • Transparent – when material transmits ALL or ALMOST ALL incident light, CLEAR • Translucent – when material transmits SOME incident light • Opaque – when material transmits NO incident light at all, absorbed or reFlected • Image – REPRODUCTION of an object thought the uses of light • Mirror – Any POLISHED surface reFlecting images • Re[lection – The bouncing back of light from a surface • Plane mirror – or Slat mirror, illustrates how predictable the path of light when hits the mirror • Incident ray – INCOMING rays that strikes a surface • Reflected ray – the ray that bounces off a reFlective surface • Normal – the perpendicular line to a mirror surface • Angle of incidence – the angle between the incident ray and normal • Angle of re[lection – the angle between the reFlected ray and normal LAW OF REFLECTION – The angle of incidence equals the angle of reFlection – The incident ray, the reFlected ray, and the normal all lie in the same space SPECTACULAR REFLECTION – reFlection of light off a smooth surface – i.e A mirror, disco ball, water reFlection, metallic surfaces DIFFUSE REFLECTION – ReFlection of light off an irregular or dull surface – i.e ripples in water, curved mirror, crumpled Al foil IMAGES IN PLANE MIRROR Rules/Steps 1. Draw exact image on the other end 2. Find 2 points on the object 3. Draw lines (dotted/solid) through the eye to the points 4. Draw lines from the real image to the other line interacting the mirror CURVED MIRROR CONCAVE/CONVERGING – Used in real applications like make up mirror, satellite dish CONVEX/DIVERGING – Used in real applications like security mirrors S.A.L.T Size – the size of the image compared to the object (small, large, medium) Altitude – the image position from the PA (upside down/inverted, upright) Location – The location in which the image is formed (in front, behind mirror) Type – Real or Virtual Real – Image formed in front of mirror and reFlected rays converge Virtual – Image formed (usually) behind the mirror where “extensions” of reFlection ray meet NOT ACTUALLY REFLECTED RAY (dotted lines REFRACTION OF LIGHT – The bonding of light when the light passes from one medium to another – Bends because light travels at different speed depending on the medium it traveling through RULES OF REFRACTION – FAST -> SLOW, refracted ray TOWARDS normal – SLOW -> Fast, refracted ray AWAY normal SNC2D1 Exam Notes INDEX OF REFRACTION n = c/v n = INDEX OF REFRACTION C = SPEED OF LIGHT IN AIR (3.00 x 108 m/s) V= SPEED OF LIGHT IN MEDIUM CRITICAL ANGLE & TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION CRITICAL ANGLE – (SLOW -> FAST) angle of incidence will cause the angle of refraction to be 90 ̊ TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION – when incident angle > the CRITICAL ANGLE, the ray selects instead of refract ● – light must be traveling from slow -> fast ● – angle of incidence must be large enough that the light reFlects instead of refracts ● – examples of TNR are how diamond sparkles and how Fibre optics worksREFRACTION – SNELL’S LAW – Equation used to determine how a light ray refracts or the index of reFlection from angles of incidence & refraction EQUATION : n1sinθ1 = n2sinθ2 n1 = Index of refraction of medium #1 n2 = “medium 2” θ1 = (incident angle) light ray to normal θ2 = (angle of refraction) light ray – normal LENS CONVERGING LENS – lens that's thickest in the middle – RAYS CONVERGE at a single point after lens when incident ray are parallel to (PA) – Focal point, opposite side for converging lens DIVERGING LENS – lens that is thinnest in the middle – rays DIVERGE/SPRAY after passing through lens when incident ray parallel to (PA) – Focal point, on same side as the incident ray IMAGES IN LENS Lateral displacement/sideway displacement – the thicker the rectangular prism the light is refracted through the larger material displacement it has Converging lens images 1. Parallel incident ray, refract F 2. Incident ray, through F (secondary focus) 3. Incident Ray through O Diverging lens images 1. Parallel incident ray, reSpect as if it cam from F 2. Incident ray aimed at F, reFlected light ray parallel to PA 3. Incident ray aimed at C, reFlections on same path LENS EQUATIONS THIN LENS EQUATION : MAGNIFICATION EQUATION: F = 1/di + 1/do M = hi/ho = – di/do do = distance from OBJECT to OPTICAL CENTRE (ALWAYS POSITIVE) di = distance from OPTICAL CENTRE to IMAGE (+ when REAL, – When VIRTUAL) ho = heigh of OBJECT from P.A to top (coordinates x, y) SNC2D1 Exam Notes hi = height of IMAGE from P.A to top f = OPTICAL CENTRE to F “FOCAL LENGTH” (+ Converging)(- Diverging) M = magniFication (+ Upright)(- Inverted) Variable Positive Negative do (object distance) ALWAYS di (image distance) REAL IMAGE FORMED VIRTUAL IMAGE FORMED ho (object height) Above P.A Below P.A hi (image height) Above P.A Below P.A ƒ (focal length) CONVERGING DIVERGING M (magniFication) UPRIGHT INVERTED FOCUS PROBLEMS Accommodations – changing shape of the lens by eye muscle to focus image on retina FARSIGHTEDNESS – (HYPEROPIA) – able to see objects far away clearly – eyeball is compressed – focuses BEHIND RETINA FIXING with POSITIVE MENISCUS NEAR-SIGHTED – (MYOPIA) – able to see object close up clearly – far objects are blurry – eyeball is elongated – IMAGES focuses in front of the retina FIXING with NEGATIVE MENISCUS SNC2D1 Exam Notes UNIT 4 – ENVIRONMENT (Climate Change) WEATHER CLIMATE WEATHER – Atmospheric conditions, including temperature precipitation, wind, and humidity in a particular location over a short period of time, such as a day or a week (water, air, energy from sun) CLIMATE – The average of the weather in a region over a long period of time METEOROLOGIST – Meteorologist gather information on weathers around the world and uses this information to forecast the weather THE SUNS AND EARTH’S CLIMATE SYSTEM – Almost all energy comes from the sun – FACTORS that affect earth’s climate are AIR, LAND, LIQUID WATER, ICE AND LIVING THINGS Sun emits – INFRARED LIGHT (IR) (low energy, long wavelengths) – ULTRA VIOLET (UV) ( high energy, short wavelengths) – VISIBLE LIGHT – RADIATION can be absorbed, transmitted and reFlected off particles Where light goes on earth – 30% reFlects back to space from – Clouds (20%) – Atmosphere (6%) – Surface of earth (4%) – 70% absorbed by atmosphere, clouds, oceans and lands – 1% used for photosynthesis m rest are absorbed and cause rocks to gain thermal energy – After sun’s energy is absorbed, IR radiation are emitted back out Effects of latitude – Earth is tilted by 23.5 ̊ brings us different temperature (seasons) yearly – Latitude measured from the distance of the equator – Tilt means warmer climate at lower latitude COMPONENTS OF EARTH’S CLIMATE ATMOSPHERE – The atmosphere is made of layer of gasses surrounding earth – 3 main gasses that make up air are 78% N2, 21% O2, 1% O3, Ar, CO2, H, He Different layers of atmosphere (ETMST) Exosphere – satellites orbit (10,000 km) Thermosphere – space shuttle orbits (500 to 1000 km) Karman Line – aurora (100 km) Mesosphere – meteors burn up (80 to 85 km) Stratosphere – ozone gas in higher concentrations (50 km) Troposphere – weather occurs, ozone (7 to 17 km) SNC2D1 Exam Notes HYDROSPHERE – The part of the climate system that includes all water on and around earth – Water cycle – where energy absorbed when evaporates, condenses into clouds and warms surroundings – Water absorbs and stores more thermal energy that land and heats up and cools down more slowly than land. Regions near a body of water tend to have cooler summer and warmer winters LITHOSPHERE ● – The part of the climate system made up of the rocks, soil and minerals of the earth's crust ● – Higher altitude = lower pressure = more air moves up causing cooler air that lower altitude LIVING THINGS – All living things – Releases CO2 and some releases methane and absorbs infrared radiation affecting climate ENERGY TRANSFER WITHIN THE CLIMATE SYSTEM HEAT SINKS – A reservoir, such as the ocean, that absorbs and stores thermal energy – water can absorb much more thermal energy that air CONVECTION CURRENT – Movement of warm air and cold air creates a circular pattern called a convection current – these current helps move energy from the equator towards the north & south poles PREVAILING WINDS – Wind that tend to move in the same direction almost all the time JET STREAM – High altitude winds that travel log distances at very high speeds – affect precipitation – may carry warm, moist air producing precipitation or dry, cool air dry weather ENERGY TRANSFER IN THE OCEAN – As water travels towards the poles, it gets colder, making it dense and sinks to the ocean Floor THERMOHALINE CIRCULATION ● – Driven by the differences in water temp and salinity ● – Currents move energy from equator to poles creating the ocean conveyor belt EFFECTS OF OCEAN CURRENTS – warm ocean currents heats air above and vice versa – produces rain when warm, moist air reaches land and vice versa Tectonic Plates – earth's outer layer composed of massive prices of solid rock – earth has about 12 major plates moving few cm each year – affects patterns of air and water circulation and the transfer of thermal energy Volcanic Eruption – when plates move they cause eruptions – spew ash and other particles called aerosols into atmosphere (sulfate aerosols) – particles reFlect solar radiation, cooling global climate – which can last few years forward its removed (percip, settling) – rise in GHG ALBEDO (EFFECT) SNC2D1 Exam Notes ● – is a measure of how much of sun’s radiation is reFlected back by a surface (%) ● – light coloured surfaces reFlect energy, dark surfaces absorbs it ● – snow and ice reFlect solar radiation – greatly affect global temperature – the positive feedback loop in which an increase in earth;s temperature causes ice to melt, more radiation is absorbed by earth’s surface, increased temp GREENHOUSE GASES – Any gas in the atmosphere that absorbs lower energy infrared radiation – NITROGEN (N2) OXYGEN (O2) found most in atmosphere (DOES NOT ABSORB IR) Examples of GHG • Water vapour • Carbon Dioxide (CO2) • Methane (CH4) • Troposphere Ozone (O3) • Nitrous Oxide (N2O) GREENHOUSE EFFECT – A natural process whereby gasses and clouds absorbs IR emitted from earth’s surface and radiates it, heating the atmosphere and earth’s surface Anthropogenic: Resulting from a human inFluence Anthropogenic GHG: CO2, CH4, N2O, CFC’S CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) (385 ppm) – Second most common greenhouse gas, causes about 1/4 (25%) – produced by – vehicle and factory emissions – plant respiration – animal respiration – burning tree and fossil fuel Carbon sinks – CO2 dissolves in the ocean and forms solid calcium carbonate – recently increased in carbon due to global temperature – disruption of the soil and loving, forming speeds carbon release – photosynthesis process of forest requires carbon to grow, absorbing/storing CO2 – Part of plant respiration and the decomposition of trees, they release CO2 WATER VAPOUR (H2O) – Most common GHG (greenhouse gas), about 2/3 (66.6%) of natural gas effects – the vapors when temperature rises, creates clouds trapping heat close to earth METHANE (CH4) (1.785 ppm) – Third most common GHG – Natural gas a fossil fuel often used to heat homes and run vehicle, formed by decay of organic matter (plants & animals) but these plants decompose thousands of years ago – found 3000-15000 feet below surface – Animals such as cows, sheep’s, bison’s multiple digestive system have microbes that release methane when breaking down OZONE (O3) – Found naturally in the stratosphere, caused 1/3 of direct GHG since industrial revolution – Protects earth’s surface from sun’s higher energy UV radiation SNC2D1 Exam Notes – Ozone found in the troposphere are harmful (smog from UV, exhaust, causes toxic corrosive effect) – InSlux from stratosphere ands photochemical reaction with higher levels of air pollution (UV radiation combined with exhaust from cars producing toxic chemical and O3) NITROUS OXIDE (N20) (0.321 ppm) – farmer’s uses of chemical fertilizers that are nitrogen based can be released, as fertilizers breakdown when farmers prepare lands for crops CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS (CFC’S) – commonly found in refrigeration agents and air conditioners – CFCs broken down by UV radiation near ozone layer, freeing chlorine, which has the potential to destroy large amounts of ozone – therefore, depletion in ozone in Antarctica & increased in genetically harmful UV rays to earth STUDY CLUES TO PAST CLIMATE PROXY RECORDS – Preserved characteristics of the past that can be measured, which allows scientist to reconstruct the climate conditions that occurred during much of earth’s history TREE RINGS – Inside of a tree core containing tree rings – the thickness of the rings tell wet and dry years in a certain region, thin = dry year – a larger/thicker ring means a good growth year ICE CORES – slices of a long rod of ice drilled in ice ● – the bubbles Filled with air help determine climate of past by preserving ancientair ● – the preserved air can help analyze the climate of the past, see temperatures and supports GW theory ● – scientist found out that CO2 decrease in ice age and CO2 increase after the ice ageFOSSILS ● – researchers found/estimated from the scallops and diatoms that anorectic use to be warm climates ● – Suggest air wasn’t always cold because these creatures can’t survive in this temp.SEDIMENTARY ROCKS – dark sediments of the face of a cliff represent lava formations – sedimentary rocks are obtained by drilling the rock – cores that combine algae tells the researcher that temperature was warmer than when sediments where with pebbles and stones – Researchers use geothermal techniques under a microscope to determine dates of rock layer – Coralizer takes hi-res photos of the core samples EVIDENCE OF CLIMATE CHANGE (CC) EFFECTS OF CC IN ATMOSPHERE – changes in severe weather – more frequent intense, severe weathers than the past – Heatwave – Drought SNC2D1 Exam Notes – WildSires – Storms – Floods ● – Changes in precipitation pattern ● – Changes in season EFFECTS OF CC IN HYDROSPHERE – Melting glacier – Ocean warming & rising sea levels – warmer waters = less CO2 absorption, less effective carbon sink = increase in GHG – Ocean currents – change in Slow – Over the past century, average ocean temp has increased by about 0.6 ̊c EFFECTS OF CC IN WILDLIFE – Change in ecosystem (shifting in ecosystems) – Threat species – force organisms to adapt and migrate, or they will become extinct – If global avg. temp increases by 3.3 ̊c between 40 and 70% of all species are risk of extinction