Chapter 40 · Distinguish between anatomy and physiology and describe how they relate to one another. Anatomy: form and structure Physiology: function → Form follows function · Define the terms tissue, organ, and organ system. Tissue: groups of cells with a common function Cells: basic functional unit Organs: structure with specific functions Epithelial tissue functions usually as a barrier. Sheets of epithelial cells connected by tight junctions and anchored to a basal lamina - polarized: apical and basal surfaces - Coats the outside of the body and lines organs inside the body→ forms an active interface with the environment 3 shapes: cuboidal, columnar, squamous 3 arrangements: simple, stratified, pseudostratified Connective tissues supports, connects or separates different types of tissues and organs in the body - Serves to support and bind together the structures of the body - Largely made up of extracellular matrix - 6 major types: loose connective, fibrous connective, bone, cartilage, adipose, and blood → variety of form, function Muscle tissue is the soft tissue of all animal muscles and gives them the ability to contract - Overall function is movement - 3 types: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth - Skeletal (aka “striated”) muscle: voluntary body movements Nervous tissue is the main tissue component of the nervous system - senses stimuli and transmits information to/form one cell to another - 2 major cell types: neurons and glial cells ● From micrographs or diagrams, correctly identify the following animal tissues, explain how their structure relates to their functions, and note examples of each type. - Epithelial tissue - Connective tissue - Cartilage - Adipose tissue Blood Bone Loose Connective Tissue Dense Fibrous Connective Tissue Muscle tissue Skeletal muscle Cardiac muscle Smooth muscle Nervous tissue Neuron Glial cell · Define homeostasis. Describe in general terms how an animal maintains homeostasis. Homeostasis: process of maintaining a “steady state” of body conditions - Coordinating and controlling internal organ to maintain a balanced state: set point, stimulus, sensor, and response - Regulation of body temperature, pH, glucose/salt concentrations - Failure to maintain homeostasis can result in tissue damage and/or death ● Distinguish between positive and negative feedback mechanisms, and provide examples of each. Describe how feedback mechanisms relate to homeostasis. Negative feedback loop: responses that reduces or diminish a stimulus Positive feedback loop: amplifying or increasing a stimulus ● Define thermoregulation. Explain in general terms how endotherms and ectotherms manage their heat budgets. Thermoregulation: process of maintaining internal body temperature - Endotherms maintain their internal body temperature through metabolism (generate own heat) - Ectotherms maintain body temperature through the environment · Describe four physical processes by which animals exchange heat with their environment, and name mechanisms by which humans can acclimatize to changing environmental temperatures. - Heat exchange occurs through 4 processes: Radiation, evaporation, convection, conduction Thermoregulation in humans is mainly achieved through the action of the integumentary system - Human mechanisms of thermoregulation : Insulation, circulatory responses, evaporation, behavior - Major player: integumentary system (skin, hair, nails) Chapter 41 · Distinguish between carnivores, herbivores, and omnivores. Carnivores: animals that eat meat as the main part of its diet Herbivores: animals that eat only vegetation Omnivores: animals that are able to consume both plants and meat · Describe the three nutritional needs that must be met by an animal’s diet. - Fuel: generate ATP from chemical energy (recall cellular respiration) - Raw materials: carbon and nitrogen - Essential Nutrients: molecules required for cellular function that the organism cannot make itself ex) Hemoglobin: iron from diet ● Define essential nutrients. Describe the four classes of essential nutrients and the roles they play in the human body. Amino acids Amino aids that cannot be synthesized by our bodies from raw materials are essential amino acids 20 different amino acids are the building blocks of proteins 8 are essential and must be obtained from our diets : methionine, valine, threonine, phenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine, tryptophan, lysine - Animal proteins are “complete”: provides all essential a.a. in correct proportions - Plant proteins are “incomplete” Vitamins : too few or too many vitamins can cause physical symptoms or toxicity - Too many vitamins can be toxic! - Vitamin deficiency can cause a variety of illnesses Vitamin D(sun) deficiency can lead to rickets Vitamin B9(folic acid) deficiency can lead to birth defects Essential vitamins are substances that “makes you ill if you don’t eat it” - Small organic molecules required for a variety of cellular functions - We cannot produce theses molecules - 13 essential vitamins are required for life: Bs, C, A, D, E, K - Two forms: fat-soluble or water-soluble Minerals Essential minerals have diverse functions in animal physiology - Inorganic small molecules required for a variety of critical cellular functions - Too much or too little can cause illness/disease Fatty Acids Animals lack the enzymes to form the double bonds found in essential fatty acids - Long carbon chains that attach to glycerol to generate lipids(fats) - Lipids are required to make all membranes - Stored in adipose tissue as an energy reserve - We can synthesize most fatty acids needed, but some are essential (ex. Linoleic acid, obtained from corn oil) - Deficiency is rare Saturated fats are solid and tend to accumulate more in the arteries than unsaturated dtas. Trans fats are even more damaging to the arteries than saturated fats! ● Describe and compare the four main stages of food processing, and where each of these stages occurs in humans. Ingestion: Eating / Obtain nutrients in polymer forms Digestion: Breaking down food / Convert polymers into monomers that can pass through cells Absorption: Uptake of nutrients into cells / Within cells, monomers are used to create our own polymers Elimination: Removal of Waste / Build-up of waste can be toxic ● Describe the function and structural components of the mammalian alimentary canal and its accessory organs (salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder). Describe the flow of food through the digestive system. The human digestive system consists of a digestive tube extending between two openings - Consists of an alimentary canal and several accessory organs A continuous tube with compartments separated by sphincters Lined by smooth muscles that push food through (peristalsis) - Accessory organs are glands that produce secretions that aid in various stages of digestion · Name three functions of saliva. Lubricates food Contains enzyme lysozyme (kills some bacteria) - Contains enzyme amylase - ● Compare where and how the major types of macromolecules (carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and fats) are digested and absorbed within the mammalian digestive system. - - - - Carbohydrates are digested in the oral cavity, stomach, small intestine (with enzymes from either the pancreas or epithelium. They are broken down by salivary amylase in the mouth to small polysaccharides and then by pancreatic amylase to disaccharides and then disaccharidases complete the process to monosaccharides. Proteins are broken down starting in the stomach and then to the small intestine (with enzymes from the pancreas or epithelium). Pepsin breaks them down in the stomach and then trypsin breaks them down to smaller polypeptides where dipeptidase complete the break down to amino acids. Lipids are only broken down in the small intestine with enzymes from only the pancreas. Pancreatic lipase breaks fat into glycerol and fatty acids. Nucleic acids are broken down in the small intestine with enzymes from both the pancreas and the epithelium. DNA and RNA can be broken down by pancreatic nucleases to nucleotides and then by nucleotidases to nitrogenous bases. ● Identify the digestive enzymes secreted by each of the accessory organs of the digestive system and their functions. Mouth: saliva contains enzyme lysozyme (kills some bacteria) and enzyme amylase (hydrolysis of carbohydrate) Stomach: secretes gastric juice. Surface of stomach is pitted with openings that lead to gastric glands that secrete digestive juices - Gastric glands: gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid(HCl) and pepsin. Small intestine (Accessory glands) -Pancreas: produces bicarbonate solution: neutralizes pH of chyme Pancreatic amylase, trypsin, nucleases, lipases -Liver: produces bile which acts as detergent to emulsify lipids (fats). Bile is stored in the gallbladder. -Epithelial Cells of duodenum secrete additional digestive enzymes ● Explain why pepsin does not digest the stomach lining. ● Describe the cause and treatment of gastric ulcers and gastric reflux. Gastric ulcers: Damaged areas of the stomach lining due to undersecretion of mucus or oversecretion of acid. Cause: presence of Helicobacter pylori in the stomachs of patients with ulcers, H.pylori causes loss of protective mucus -Treated with antibiotics Acid Reflux: weakened sphincter muscle between esophagus and stomach. Cause: damage to esophagus by gastric juices. -Treated with prescription and OCT antacids. ● Explain how the small intestine is specialized for digestion and absorption. To reach body tissues, nutrients in the lumen must be absorbed across the lining of the alimentary canal - Large surface area of small intestine makes it well suited for absorption of nutrients - Surface area increased by presence of villi finger-like- projections - Each cell in a villus contains microvilli which further increases the surface area available for absorption: brush border ● Describe the major functions of the large intestine. The large intestine is the site of the last stage of food processing: elimination - Mostly made up of colon; also cecum and rectum - Major function: re-absorption of water used in digestion (via osmosis) - Elimination of solid waste (fecal matter) from digestion through rectum and anus - Cecum is important for fermenting ingested plant material ● Describe where and in what forms excess energy-rich molecules are stored in the human body. : Glycogen in the liver Glycogen in the muscle Fat in adipose cells Protein cannot be stored ● Describe how the hormones glucagon and insulin function to maintain homeostasis in the body : ● Describe how different hormones contribute to appetite regulation and fat storage. - Hunger is triggered by ghrelin : hard to ignore, feeling hunger - Fullness is triggered by : insulin(rise in blood sugar) PYY, leptin → easier to ignore, leads obesity - Obesity is contributed by : high calorie diets/overnourishment, genetics Chapter 42 · Compare and contrast an open vs. closed circulatory system. Describe the advantages of each. A circulatory system has 3 basic components - Circulatory fluid (blood or hemolymph) - A set of tubes (blood vessels) - A muscular pump (heart) Open system: blood bathes the organs; blood and interstitial fluid mix to form hemolymph → less energy needed Closed system: blood is confined to vessels and kept separate from interstitial fluid · Distinguish between the pulmonary and systemic circuits of the human circulatory system and explain the functions of each. Pulmonary circuit: heart to lungs to hearts Systemic circuit: heat to body to heart · Describe the structure of the human heart, including the location of the atria, ventricles, atrioventricular valves, and semilunar valves. · Starting with the right ventricle, trace the pathway of blood throughout the body and back to the right atrium. · Define a cardiac cycle, including the differences between systole and diastole. Describe what makes the two distinct sounds of a heartbeat. · Define heart murmur and explain its potential causes and treatments. · Describe the structure of capillaries, arteries, and veins, and relate their structure to their function. · Define blood pressure and describe how it is measured. · Explain how blood flow and the exchange of fluids and solutes in capillary beds are regulated. · Describe the composition and function of plasma and distinguish it from serum. · Describe the structure and function of erythrocytes. Explain the role of hemoglobin. · Describe the various functions of leukocytes. · Describe the function of platelets. Outline the sequence of events that occur during blood clotting. · Describe atherosclerosis and how it can contribute to heart attack or stroke. Explain the differences between a heart attack and a stroke. · Explain the difference between high density lipoprotein (HDL) and low density lipoprotein (LDL) and how cholesterol can contribute to heart disease. · Describe the structure of the lung, including the bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli. · For the human respiratory system, describe the movement of air through air passageways to the alveolus, listing the structures that air must pass through on its journey. · Explain the process of negative pressure breathing in humans, and describe the role of the diaphragm in the breathing process. · Describe the structure, function, and biochemical properties of hemoglobin.

Distinguish Between Anatomy and Physiology

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