Lesson 3 Cognition in the Brain. Anatomy and Mechanisms

LESSON 3: COGNITION IN THE BRAIN: ANATOMY AND MECHANISMS INTRODUCTION TO THE NERVOUS SYSTEM - The nervous system is the foundation of our ability to perceive, adapt to, and interact with the world The brain is the supreme organ of the nervous system The cerebral cortex controls many of our thought processes - MAJOR REGIONS OF THE BRAIN 1. 2. 3. - Forebrain Midbrain Hindbrain These labels derive from the front-to-back arrangement in a developing embryo, not their final positions in an adult brain. BRAIN DEVELOPMENT - Initial embryonic arrangement: forebrain (front) →midbrain →hindbrain (back) As the fetus develops, the orientation changes. The forebrain eventually forms a cap on top of the midbrain and hindbrain. This process occurs from a few weeks after conception to birth THE FOREBRAIN: OVERVIEW - - 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The forebrain is located at the top and front of the brain and includes: Cerebral Basal ganglia Limbic system Thalamus Hypothalamus THE CEREBRAL CORTEX - Outer layer of the cerebral hemispheres Plays a vital role in thinking and other mental processes Responsible for higher-order cognitive functions BASAL GANGLIA - Collections of neurons crucial to motor function Dysfunction can result in motor deficits, including:  Tremors  Involuntary movements  Changes in posture and muscle tone  Slowness of movement - implicated in disorders like Parkinson's and Huntington's disease THE LIMBIC SYSTEM: OVERVIEW - Important for emotion, motivation, memory, and learning More developed in mammals, especially humans Allows for suppression of instinctive responses Helps adapt behaviors flexibly to changing environments. Comprises three central interconnected structures:  Septum  Amygdala  Hippocampus SEPTUM: - Involved in anger and fear AMYGDALA: - Crucial for emotion, especially anger and aggression Stimulation can result in fear responses Damage can lead to maladaptive lack of fear Enhances perception of emotional stimuli Dysfunction linked to autism and social impairment - THALAMUS: - Relays incoming sensory information to appropriate cortical regions. Located approximately in the center of the brain Divided into nuclei (groups of neurons with similar functions) Helps control sleep and waking Dysfunction can lead to various issues:  Pain, tremor, amnesia  Language impairment  Sleep-wake cycle disruptions  Abnormalities linked to schizophrenia symptoms - HIPPOCAMPUS: - Essential for memory formation Crucial for flexible learning and spatial memory Monitors spatial relationships ("what is where") Damage can result in inability to form new memories Involved in declarative memory, but not procedural memory Deterioration linked to Korsakoff's syndrome HYPOTHALAMUS: - Regulates behaviors related to species survival: Fighting, feeding, fleeing, mating Helps regulate emotions and stress reactions Interacts with the limbic system Controls many bodily functions despite its small size Plays a role in sleep regulation (linked to narcolepsy) Important for endocrine system functioning ▪ Stimulates the pituitary gland for hormone production THE MIDBRAIN: OVERVIEW - Helps control eye movement and coordination Contains the crucial Reticular Activating System (RAS) Part of the brainstem, connecting forebrain to spinal cord RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM (RAS) - Network of neurons essential for:  Regulating consciousness  Sleep and wakefulness  Arousal and attention  Vital functions (heartbeat, breathing): extends into the hindbrain, critical for conscious awareness and control The hindbrain comprises three main structures: 1. 2. 3. - Medulla oblongata Pons Cerebellum These structures are part of the brainstem and perform vital functions. MEDULLA OBLONGATA: - Controls heart activity, contains part of the Reticular Activating System (RAS) Largely controls breathing, swallowing, and digestion. Essential for keeping us alive. Point where nerves cross from one side of the body to the opposite side of the brain PONS: - Contains neural fibers passing signals between brain parts Name means "bridge" in Latin, reflecting its function Contains a portion of the Reticular Activating System (RAS) Houses nerves serving parts of the head and face CEREBELLUM: - Controls bodily coordination, balance, and muscle tone Involved in some aspects of procedural memory Name means "little brain" in Latin Important for motor learning and fine-tuning of movement BRAIN DEVELOPMENT AND EVOLUTION - Prenatal brain development mirrors evolutionary development Hindbrain: evolutionarily oldest, develops first prenatally Midbrain: newer addition, develops second prenatally Forebrain: most recent addition, develops last prenatally Evolution has increased neural complexity, allowing for:  Enhanced voluntary control over behavior  Improved planning abilities  Better contemplation of alternative actions CONCLUSION: THE BRAIN AND COGNITION - The brain's complex structure underlies our cognitive abilities Each region plays a crucial role in different aspects of cognition Understanding brain anatomy helps explain cognitive processes Continued research in neuroscience enhances our knowledge of brain-behavior relationships This knowledge can lead to better treatments for neurological and psychiatric disorders THE CEREBRAL CORTEX: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION - The cerebral cortex is a 1-3 mm layer wrapping the brain's surface. Crucial for human cognition: thinking, planning, perception, and language. Makes up 80% of the human brain ▪ Gray matter: contains neural cell bodies for information processing. Divided into left and right cerebral hemispheres ANATOMY OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX - Convolutions increase surface area: Sulci: small grooves Fissures: large grooves Gyri: bulges between grooves If smoothed out, human cortex would cover about 2 square feet Underlying white matter contains myelinated axons HEMISPHERIC SPECIALIZATION - Left and right hemispheres have different functions Contralateral organization: each hemisphere controls opposite side of body Some ipsilateral transmission occurs (e.g., olfactory information) Corpus callosum: neural fibers connecting hemispheres HISTORICAL DISCOVERIES IN HEMISPHERIC SPECIALIZATION - Marc Dax (1836): Observed left hemisphere damage in aphasia patients Paul Broca (1861): Identified Broca's area for speech production Carl Wernicke: Discovered Wernicke's area for language comprehension Roger Sperry: Nobel Prize winning research on hemispheric specialization SPLIT-BRAIN RESEARCH - Surgical severing of corpus callosum to treat epilepsy. Results in two separate specialized "brains". Reveals distinct functions of left and right hemispheres. Provides insights into language, spatial abilities, and information processing. LEFT HEMISPHERE FUNCTIONS - Language processing population) (90% of - Movement control and skilled actions Analytical thinking and pattern recognition - Hypothesis generation Grammatical and understanding phonetic RIGHT HEMISPHERE FUNCTIONS - Spatial visualization and orientation - Face recognition and selfrecognition Understanding context, metaphors, and humor Practical language use Holistic information processing LOBES OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX - Four main lobes: 1. Frontal lobe 2. Parietal lobe 3. Temporal lobe 4. Occipital lobe Each lobe has specialized functions but also interacts with others FRONTAL LOBE: - Location: Front of the brain Functions: Motor processing Higher thought processes (reasoning, problem-solving, planning) Speech production Contains prefrontal cortex and primary motor cortex 1. PRIMARY MOTOR CORTEX  Part of the frontal lobe responsible for planning, control, and execution of movement  Contralateral organization  Mapped as a motor homunculus  Body parts represented proportionally to their importance in motor control PARIETAL LOBE: - Location: Upper back portion of the brain Functions: Somatosensory processing (touch, pressure, temperature, pain) Spatial perception - Attention and consciousness Contains primary somatosensory cortex 1. SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX  Part of the parietal lobe  Receives sensory information from the body  Mapped as a sensory homunculus  Body parts represented proportionally to their sensory importance TEMPORAL LOBE: - Location: Below the parietal lobe, near the temples Functions: Auditory processing Language comprehension, visual memory retention, object recognition OCCIPITAL LOBE: - Location: Back of the brain Primary function: Visual processing Contains multiple specialized visual areas for: color perception, motion detection, form recognition and spatial location VISUAL CORTEX AND OPTIC CHIASMA: - Visual cortex primarily located in the occipital lobe Optic chiasma: crossover point for visual information Contralateral and ipsilateral connections from eyes to visual cortex Left visual field processed by right hemisphere, and vice versa BRAIN ENERGY CONSUMPTION - Brain makes up about 1/40 of body weight Uses approximately: 20% of circulating blood, 20% of available glucose, 20% of available oxygen SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS - Cerebral cortex is crucial for human cognition and behavior Hemispheric specialization and lobe functions demonstrate complexity Understanding brain structure and function is vital for cognitive psychology Ongoing research in cognitive neuroscience continues to reveal new insights NEURONAL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION: THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM INTRODUCTION TO NEURONS - Neurons are individual neural cells that transmit electrical signals in the nervous system Highest concentration found in the neocortex of the brain Neocortex: Part of the brain associated with complex cognition Can contain up to 100,000 neurons per cubic millimeter Neurons form networks for information processing and feedback BASIC STRUCTURE OF A NEURON: 1. Soma (cell body) - Contains the nucleus of the cell - Responsible for the life of the neuron - Performs metabolic and reproductive functions - Connects dendrites to the axon - Integrates information received from dendrites 2. Dendrites - Branchlike structures - Receive information from neurons - Important for learning - Formation of connections learning new neuronal associated with 3. Axon - Long, thin tube extending from the soma - Responds to information by transmitting electrochemical signals - Can split into branches - Signals travel to the terminus (end) - Two types: myelinated and unmyelinated other 4. Terminal buttons MYELIN AND SIGNAL TRANSMISSION - Myelin: white, fatty substance surrounding some axons Myelinated axons transmit signals faster (up to 100 meters/second) Myelin distributed in segments with gaps called nodes of Ranvier Nodes of Ranvier increase conduction speed Degeneration of myelin sheaths associated with multiple sclerosis TERMINAL BUTTONS AND SYNAPSES - Terminal buttons: small knobs at the ends of axon branches Synapse: small gap between terminal buttons and dendrites of next neuron Synapses are crucial for cognition Rats show increased size and number of synapses after learning Reduced synaptic efficiency linked to decreased cognitive function (e.g., Alzheimer's) NEUROTRANSMISSION - Signal transmission occurs when terminal buttons release neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters: chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap  Over 100 known neurotransmitter substances  Ongoing research on neurotransmitter interactions with drugs, moods, abilities, and perceptions TYPES OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS: Three main types - 1. Monoamine neurotransmitters 2. Amino-acid neurotransmitters 3. Neuropeptides ACETYLCHOLINE - Associated with memory functions Important for sleep and arousal Loss of acetylcholine linked to impaired memory in Alzheimer's patients Increase in cholinergic neuron activity upon awakening - SEROTONIN - DOPAMINE - High levels linked to schizophrenia ("dopamine theory of schizophrenia") Low levels associated with Parkinson's disease Dopamine treatment may increase pathological gambling behavior Associated with attention, learning, and movement coordination Involved in motivational processes (reward and reinforcement) - Important role in eating behavior and body-weight regulation High levels associated with some types of anorexia (e.g., illnessinduced) Involved in aggression and regulation of impulsivity Blocking serotonin may increase aggressive behavior COMPLEXITY OF NEURONAL COMMUNICATION - Constant neuronal communication is highly intricate Complexities make it challenging to understand normal brain processes Researchers study neurological and psychological disorders to gain insights  Example: Investigation of depression led to discoveries about mood regulating chemicals NEUROTRANSMITTER IMBALANCES AND DISORDERS - Chemical imbalances may contribute to various Understanding imbalances can help develop treatments Potential treatments:  Providing needed neurotransmitters  Inhibiting effects of overabundant neurotransmitters PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY AND THE BRAIN - Brain receptors can be affected by psychoactive drugs (legal or illegal) Drug molecules can occupy receptors normally used by endogenous neurotransmitters This interaction forms the basis for many psychiatric medications and recreational drugs NEUROPLASTICITY AND LEARNING - Learning associated with formation of new neuronal connections Synaptic changes occur during learning processes Rats show increases in synapse size and number after learning tasks  Neuroplasticity: brain's ability to reorganize itself throughout life NEURODEGENERATIVE DISEASES - Alzheimer's disease: associated with loss of acetylcholine and reduced synaptic efficiency Multiple sclerosis: caused by degeneration of myelin sheaths Parkinson's disease: linked to low dopamine levels  Understanding these diseases helps illuminate normal brain function NEUROTRANSMITTER IMBALANCES AND BEHAVIOR 1. Serotonin: - Low levels: Associated with depression, anxiety, and increased aggression - High levels: Can lead to serotonin syndrome (confusion, muscle rigidity, fever) 4. GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric acid): - Low levels: Associated with anxiety, epilepsy, and insomnia - Imbalance: Can affect mood and stress response 2. Dopamine: - Low levels: Linked to Parkinson's disease (movement problems), ADHD, and depression - High levels: Associated with schizophrenia, mania, and addictive behaviors 5. Glutamate: - Excess levels: Linked to neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's and ALS - Imbalance: Can contribute to cognitive impairments and mood disorders 3. Norepinephrine: - Imbalance: Can contribute to anxiety disorders, depression, and ADHD - Low levels: May result in lethargy and lack of focus 6. Acetylcholine: - Low levels: Associated with memory problems and cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease - Imbalance: Can affect attention and learning abilities CURRENT RESEARCH IN NEUROSCIENCE - Ongoing investigations into neurotransmitter functions and interactions Studies on the relationship between brain chemistry and psychological states Development of new treatments for neurological and psychiatric disorders Exploration of brain-computer interfaces and neural engineering CONCLUSION: THE FUTURE OF NEUROSCIENCE - Rapid advancements in neuroimaging and molecular biology Potential for personalized treatments based on individual brain chemistry Ethical considerations in neuroscience research and applications Continued exploration of the complex relationship between brain structure, function, and behavior EXPLORING BRAIN STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION: METHODS IN NEUROSCIENCE INTRODUCTION TO BRAIN RESEARCH - Brain research uses various methods to understand structure and function Two main categories: postmortem studies and in vivo techniques Earlier focus: studying brains after death Current trend: observing mental functioning in real-time Each method provides unique insights into brain structure and function POSTMORTEM STUDIES - Definition: Examination of the brain after death Process:  Observe and document behavior of living patients with brain damage  Examine patients' brains for lesions after death  Infer relationships between lesioned areas and affected behaviors  Example: Phineas Gage case study (19th century)  Limitations: Cannot observe active physiological processes CASE STUDY: BROCA'S PATIENT - Patient nicknamed "Tan" due to speech impairment Showed severe speech production problems Postmortem examination revealed lesions in the frontal lobe Led to identification of Broca's area Broca's area: region involved in speech production Demonstrates link between brain structure and specific functions STUDYING LIVE NONHUMAN ANIMALS - Allows observation of physiological processes in living brains Three main approaches:  Single-cell recordings ▪  Selective lesioning  Genetic knockout procedures  Provides insights not possible with human subjects  Limitations: Generalization to humans may be restricted SINGLE-CELL RECORDINGS - Process: Insert thin electrode next to a single neuron in an animal's brain Purpose: Record changes in electrical activity when exposed to stimuli Application: Study of visual perception (e.g., Hubel & Wiesel's Nobel Prize-winning research) Limitation: Not safe for use in humans SELECTIVE LESIONING AND GENETIC KNOCKOUTS 1. Selective Lesioning: - Surgically remove or damage part of the brain - Observe resulting functional deficits 2. - Genetic Knockouts: Some drugs can induce reversible lesions Use genetic manipulation to create animals lacking certain brain cells or receptors Compare with normal animals to infer function of missing components STUDYING LIVE HUMANS: OVERVIEW - - Less invasive techniques used for ethical reasons. Three main categories:  Electrical recordings  Static imaging  Metabolic imaging Each provides unique insights into brain structure and function ELECTRICAL RECORDINGS: EEG AND ERP 1. Electroencephalogram (EEG): - Records electrical frequencies and intensities of the living brain - Electrodes placed on scalp - Used to study sleep states, epilepsy, etc. STATIC IMAGING TECHNIQUES 2. Event-Related Potential (ERP): - Measures small changes in brain's electrical activity in response to specific stimuli - Provides good temporal resolution - Used to study attention, language processing, cognitive development 1. Computed Tomography (CT) Scan: - Uses X-rays to create 3D images of the brain - Detects large abnormalities (e.g., tumors, stroke damage) 2. Angiography: - Examines blood flow in the brain - Useful for detecting strokes, aneurysms, arteriosclerosis 3. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): - Uses magnetic fields to create high-resolution images - Two types: structural MRI and functional MRI (fMRI) METABOLIC IMAGING: BASIC PRINCIPLES - Relies on changes in brain's consumption of glucose and oxygen ▪ Active areas consume more glucose and oxygen Subtraction method:  Compare activity during task of interest vs. control task  Difference indicates areas specifically involved in target task  Limitation: Cannot determine if activity is excitatory or inhibitory POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY (PET) - - Measures increases in oxygen consumption in active brain areas Process:  Participant given mildly radioactive form of oxygen  Brain scanned to detect positrons emitted during metabolism  Computer analyzes data to produce images of brain function Applications: Diagnosis of cognitive disorders, studying brain efficiency in intelligence FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (FMRI) - - Uses magnetic fields to construct 3D representation of brain activity Based on increases in oxygen consumption ▪ Higher temporal resolution than PET Process:  Participant performs task inside MRI machine  More active areas draw more oxygenated blood  Computer analyzes data to provide precise information on brain activity Applications: Studying vision, attention, language, memory DIFFUSION TENSOR IMAGING (DTI) - Examines restricted dispersion of water in brain tissue, especially axons Useful for: Mapping white matter in the brain, examining neural circuits Applications: Studying traumatic brain injury, schizophrenia, brain maturation, multiple sclerosis TRANSCRANIAL STIMULATION (TMS) - MAGNETIC Temporarily disrupts normal brain activity in a limited area Process: Electrical current passed through coil on head generates magnetic field Advantages: Can imitate lesions or stimulate brain regions, allows examination of causal relationships Applications: Investigating brain areas involved in motor actions, potential treatment for neuropsychological disorders MAGNETOENCEPHALOGRAPHY (MEG) - - Measures brain activity by detecting magnetic fields from outside the head Allows localization of brain signals with high precision Applications:  Helping surgeons locate pathological structures  Studying phantom limb pain Advantage: One of the most precise measuring methods EMERGING TECHNIQUES - Combination of fMRI and MEG: Integrates spatial (fMRI) and temporal (MEG) information Provides more detailed understanding of brain processes Functional Transcranial Doppler Sonography (fTCD): Uses ultrasound to track blood flow velocity in the brain, continuous monitoring with high temporal resolution, suitable for children or less cooperative subjects NEAR-INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY (NIRS) - Monitors blood flow and oxygen levels in the prefrontal cortex Process: Sensor attached to forehead takes measurements before, during, and after tasks Advantages: Relatively easy to use, allows some subject movement, portable for various settings Particularly useful for studies involving children LIMITATIONS AND CONSIDERATIONS - Current techniques do not provide unambiguous mappings of functions to brain structures Relationships between cognitive functions and brain structures are often inferred Multiple brain structures may influence particular functions Best results often come from combining multiple techniques Some studies combine in vivo animal studies with brain imaging techniques FUTURE DIRECTIONS IN BRAIN RESEARCH - Continued development of non-invasive techniques Improved spatial and temporal resolution in imaging Integration of multiple imaging modalities Advancements in data analysis and interpretation Increased focus on individual differences and personalized medicine Potential for new insights into neurological and psychiatric disorders Ethical considerations in brain research and potential applications NEUROSCIENCE TECHNIQUES IN RESEARCH EEG APPLICATIONS IN RESEARCH - Sleep Studies: ▪ Monitoring sleep stages and disorders  Example: Using EEG to diagnose narcolepsy by observing abnormal sleep patterns Cognitive Development: Tracking brain maturation in children  Example: Studying language acquisition in infants by measuring  ERP responses to native vs. non-native phonemes Neurofeedback: Training individuals to control their brain activity  Example: Using EEG neurofeedback to help individuals with ADHD improve attention FMRI IN COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE - Decision Making: Observing brain activity during complex choices  Example: Studying neural correlates of moral decision-making by presenting ethical dilemmas in the scanner Memory Formation: Tracking brain activity during encoding and retrieval  Example: Investigating how emotional content affects memory formation by comparing brain activity for emotional vs. neutral stimuli Neuroplasticity: ▪ Examining brain changes due to learning or injury  Example: Monitoring brain reorganization in stroke patients during rehabilitation PET SCANS IN CLINICAL RESEARCH - Alzheimer's Disease: ▪ Detecting early signs of neurodegeneration  Example: Using PET to image amyloid plaques in the brain, a hallmark of Alzheimer's Cancer Research: Monitoring tumor metabolism and treatment response  Example: Tracking glucose uptake in brain tumors before and after chemotherapy Parkinson's Disease: Assessing dopamine function  Example: Using PET to measure dopamine receptor density in patients with earlystage Parkinson's TMS IN COGNITIVE ENHANCEMENT AND THERAPY - Depression Treatment: Stimulating brain regions to alleviate symptoms  Example: Using repetitive TMS on the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex to treat major depressive disorder Stroke Rehabilitation: Enhancing motor recovery  Example: Applying TMS to the motor cortex to improve hand function in stroke survivors Cognitive Enhancement: Temporarily boosting cognitive abilities  Example: Using TMS to enhance creative problem-solving by suppressing specific brain regions BRAIN DISORDERS: UNDERSTANDING COGNITIVE IMPAIRMENTS - Brain disorders can significantly impair cognitive functioning They provide valuable insights into brain function Historical approach: Detailed patient observations and post-mortem analysis Modern approach: In vivo techniques for diagnosis and research Focus on three major categories: Stroke, Brain Tumors, and Head Injuries STROKE: OVERVIEW - Definition: Sudden disruption of blood flow to the brain Results in marked loss of cognitive functioning Symptoms depend on the affected brain area Can cause paralysis, speech loss, language comprehension issues, and impaired thought processes 1. Ischemic Stroke: - Caused by buildup of fatty tissue in blood vessels - Piece of tissue breaks off and lodges in brain arteries - Treatable with clot-busting drugs 2. Hemorrhagic Stroke: - Occurs when a blood vessel in the brain suddenly breaks - Blood spills into surrounding tissue, causing cell death SYMPTOMS: - Numbness or weakness (especially on one side of the body) Confusion and difficulty speaking or understanding speech Vision disturbances Dizziness, trouble walking, or loss of balance Severe headache with no known cause BRAIN TUMORS: - Also called neoplasms Can seriously affect cognitive functioning Occur in gray or white matter (more common in white matter) Two main types: Primary (originate in brain) and Secondary (spread from elsewhere) 1. Benign Tumors: - Do not contain cancer cells - Usually removable and don't grow back - Can still be dangerous if pressing on sensitive brain areas 2. Malignant Tumors: - Contain cancer cells - Grow quickly and surrounding healthy tissue - Life-threatening invade BRAIN TUMOR SYMPTOMS - Headaches (often worse in the morning) Nausea or vomiting Changes in speech, vision, or hearing Balance or walking problems - Mood, personality, or concentration changes Memory issues Seizures or muscle twitching Numbness or tingling in extremities BRAIN TUMOR DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT - Diagnosis methods: Neurological examination CT scan MRI - Common treatment approach: Combination of surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy HEAD INJURIES: - Result from various causes (e.g., car accidents, hard object impacts, bullet wounds) Surprisingly common: 1.4 million North Americans affected annually \(~50,000\) deaths and \(235,000\) hospitalizations per year \(2\)% of U.S. population needs long-term assistance due to head injuries 1. Closed-head injuries: - Skull remains intact - Brain damage from mechanical force  Example: Hitting head on windshield in car accident 2. Open-head injuries: - Skull is penetrated  Example: Bullet wound IMMEDIATE SYMPTOMS OF HEAD INJURY - Abnormal breathing Speech or vision disturbances Pupils of unequal size COGNITIVE SYMPTOMS OF HEAD INJURY - Weakness or paralysis Dizziness Neck pain or stiffness - Concentration problems Difficulty understanding others Trouble expressing thoughts verbally - Challenges with abstract concepts Memory issues CASE STUDY: KEVIN PEARCE - Snowboarder who suffered traumatic brain injury before 2010 Olympics Spent a month in intensive care Required 3 months of hospital rehabilitation Had to relearn basic skills like walking and speaking Recovery continued for years post-accident Now advocates for brain injury awareness and support IMPACT OF BRAIN DISORDERS ON COGNITIVE FUNCTION - Affects various cognitive domains: Memory, Attention, Language, Executive functions, Perception Severity and specific impairments depend on the type and location of the disorder NEUROPLASTICITY AND RECOVERY - Brain's ability to reorganize and form new neural connections - Crucial for recovery from brain disorders - Rehabilitation techniques often leverage neuroplasticity - Can lead to significant improvements in cognitive function over time DIAGNOSTIC TECHNIQUES FOR BRAIN DISORDERS - Neurological examination Neuroimaging: CT, MRI, fMRI, PET Electroencephalography (EEG) Neuropsychological testing Blood tests and cerebrospinal fluid analysis TREATMENT APPROACHES - Medication (e.g., anticoagulants for stroke, chemotherapy for tumors), Surgery (tumor removal, relieving pressure in head injuries), Radiation therapy, Cognitive rehabilitation, Physical and occupational therapy, Speech and language therapy PREVENTION AND RISK REDUCTION - Maintain a healthy lifestyle (diet, exercise, no smoking), Control blood pressure and cholesterol, wear protective gear during high-risk activities, Regular medical checkups, Recognize and respond quickly to warning signs FUTURE DIRECTIONS IN BRAIN DISORDER RESEARCH - Advanced neuroimaging techniques Gene therapy and targeted drug delivery Brain-computer interfaces for rehabilitation Stem cell therapies for brain repair Artificial intelligence in diagnosis and treatment planning CONCLUSION - Brain disorders significantly impact cognitive function and quality of life Understanding these disorders provides crucial insights into brain function Ongoing research and technological advancements offer hope for improved diagnosis, treatment, and prevention Importance of public awareness and support for those affected by brain disorders