The Big Picture - A Review of Biology

Name:_________________________________________________Date:___________Period:____ The Big Picture: A Review of Biology Cells and their Processes Organic Compounds • • • • A compound is a combination of 2 or more atoms An organic compound is a compound that contains carbon atoms that have combined with each other An inorganic compound is a compound with no combination of carbon atoms 6 most common elements in organic molecules: SPONCH - sulfur, phosphorus, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen (or CHONPS for remembering them in order of abundance). The Four Types of Organic Compounds (The Molecules of Life) • • • • Carbohydrates: Sugars used for short term energy Lipids: Fats and oils used for long term energy Proteins: Made up of amino acids; used for construction materials and chemical reactions in the body o Enzymes: Special types of proteins that speed up chemical reactions in the body but are not changed by the reactions Nucleic acids: DNA and RNA; contains genetic information; made up of nucleotides Cells • • • • A cell is the smallest unit that is alive and can carry on all the processes of life Cells make up organisms (living things) o Unicellular organisms are made up of 1 cell o Multicellular organisms are made up of many cells Cells contain organelles, which are specialized compartments that carry out a specific function Types of cells o Eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus: animal, plant, fungi, and protist cells o Prokaryotic cells contain no nucleus, such as bacteria Animal Cells • Organelles include o Nucleus: controls cell activities o Cell membrane: controls what enters and leaves the cell. o Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): tunnels for compounds to move through the cell o Golgi body: processes and stores protein o Ribosomes: make proteins o Mitochondria: makes energy for the cell o Lysosome: has enzymes that digest waste and old organelles o Cytoplasm: fills the empty space of the cell o Vacuole: stores food, water, and waste – provides turgor in a plant cell! o Centrioles: help in cell division and are only found in animal, not plant, cells Plant Cells • • Usually rectangular Organelles include o Everything that an animal cell has (except lysosomes and centrioles) plus more … o Chloroplast: traps sunlight to make food for the plant o Cell wall: provides structure and protects the cell Bacterial cells • • • Smaller and simpler than plant or animal cells. They are unicellular and have NO nucleus Have a single closed loop of DNA, cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm and ribosomes Some have a capsule (shell for protection), pili (short hair like structures to hold onto host cells), and flagella (whip like structure for movement) Viruses • • • • Noncellular entities with a simple structure and cannot reproduce on their own Much smaller than a bacterial, animal, or plant cell Parts of a virus o Nucleic acid inside the virus – can be either DNA or RNA o Capsid: protein coat to protect the nucleic acid inside the virus o Spikes: help the virus to attach to host cells There is much controversy on whether viruses are alive or not because they cannot reproduce on their own. They do not have the organelles needed to reproduce o Viruses must invade a living cell and use the cell’s tools to reproduce o Host cell: An animal, plant, or bacterial cell that is invaded by a virus o Viruses harm and/or kill the host cell that they infect Cell membrane • • • • • • Made up of molecules called phospholipids and special proteins Phospholipid bilayer is the 2 layers of phospholipids that make up the cell membrane Cell membrane is fluid, which means that it is constantly flowing and moving over the cell Cell membrane is selectively permeable, which means that it allows small compounds, but not large ones, to pass right through There are different ways that materials are transported across the cell membrane o Passive transport: requires no energy § Diffusion: compounds move from high to low concentration § Osmosis: diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane o Active transport: requires energy § Endocytosis: large compound are brought into the cell § Exocytosis: large compounds are exported out of the cell Types of solutions o Hypotonic solutions cause water to move into the cell so the cell swells up o Hypertonic solutions cause water to move out of the cell so the cell shrivels up o Isotonic solutions cause no net movement of water into or out of the cell Photosynthesis • • • • • • • Process by which organisms use energy from sunlight to make their own food (glucose) Glucose is a simple sugar Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts of plant cells and in some protists Chloroplasts have a green pigment called chlorophyll Steps of photosynthesis o 1. Light-dependent reaction: chlorophyll in the chloroplasts absorbs sunlight o 2. Light-independent reaction (Calvin Cycle): The energy from the sunlight is used to make glucose Light energy is completely changed into chemical energy (glucose) Chemical equation for photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy à C6H12O6 + O2 Cellular Respiration • • • • Process that breaks down glucose in order to make energy for an organism ATP: compound that stores energy in an organism – useful energy for the cell! Occurs in the mitochondria of a eukaryotic cell Two types of cellular respiration o Aerobic respiration: requires oxygen to occur § Mostly happens in animals and plants § There are 3 steps in aerobic respiration • Step 1 is glycolysis: glucose is cut in half • Step 2 is the Kreb’s Cycle (citric acid cycle): glucose halves get electrons chopped off of them • o Step 3 is the electron transport chain: electrons combine with oxygen and are used to make a lot of ATP § Chemical equation for respiration (unbalanced): C6H12O6 + O2 à CO2 + H2O + ATP energy § Aerobic respiration is the opposite of photosynthesis Anaerobic respiration: does not require oxygen to occur § Mostly happens in bacteria and yeast § Also called fermentation § Makes less ATP than aerobic respiration Chromosomes • • • • • • • • DNA strands in the nucleus that contain the directions on how to make and keep an organism alive Made up of genes, which are traits of an organism Cells will die if their DNA is damaged or removed Humans have mostly diploid cells, which means that our cells have 2 of each type of chromosome o Homologous chromosomes are 2 of the same type of chromosome o We have 23 types of chromosomes – 22 autosomes + sex chromosomes (XY) o We have 46 chromosomes in all, 23 chromosomes from mom + 23 chromosomes from dad Human gametes (sperm and egg cells) are haploid cells, which means that they have 1 of each type of chromosome o Sperm and egg cells have 23 chromosomes in all Autosomes: Chromosomes that do not determine gender Sex chromosomes: Chromosomes that determine gender o Girls are XX, Boys are XY Karyotype: ordered picture of an organism’s chromosomes o Healthy individuals have 2 of each type of chromosome o Individuals with Down Syndrome have 47 chromosomes - three #21 chromosomes o Individuals with Turners Syndrome are female with 45 chromosomes –XO o Individuals with Klinefelter Syndrome are male with 47 chromosomes – XXY Cell Cycle • • The cell cycle is the phases in the life of a cell o 1. M phase: Mitosis (cell division) occurs o 2. G1 phase: Cell grows o 3. S phase: DNA synthesis (chromosomes are copied) o 4. G2 phase: Cell grows o 5. M phase begins again Chromosomes must be copied before mitosis so that new cells receive the same chromosomes found in the old cells Mitosis • • • Division of a cell into 2 identical cells Before mitosis: Chromosomes have copied themselves (DNA replication) Ø Sister chromatids: original chromosome and its exact copy are attached to each other Phases of mitosis (PMAT) o 1. Prophase: Nuclear membrane falls apart and spindle fibers start to form o 2. Metaphase: Sister chromatids line up along the middle of the spindle fibers o 3. Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite ends of the cell o 4. Telophase: Spindle fibers break down and new nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes Ø Cytokinesis occurs when the cytoplasm actually divides, forming two new cells Genetics Meiosis • • • • Cell division that produces gametes (sex cells), such as sperm and egg cells Fertilization: Process of an egg and a sperm cell combining to produce a zygote o Zygote: baby that is only 1 cell big o Egg cell (23 chromosomes) + Sperm cell (23 chromosomes) = B aby (46 chromosomes) Steps in meiosis o 1. Before meiosis: Ø Each chromosome doubles (DNA replication) Ø 2 chromosomes of the same type (homologous chromosomes) come together to make a chromosome pair Ø This gives 4 chromosomes stuck together (tetrad) o 2. Meiosis I: Chromosome pairs separate into two new cells o 3. Meiosis II: Sister chromatids separate into 4 new cells In meiosis, one cell becomes four different cells (gametes); but in mitosis one cell becomes two identical cells DNA • • • • • • • • Deoxyribonucleic acid Makes up the chromosomes in the nucleus and never leaves the nucleus A chromosome is a chain of different genes DNA has a double helix shape Has four types of bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), thymine (T), cytosine (C) A binds T and G binds C DNA is complementary, which means that the bases on one strand match up to the bases on the other strand o For example: Strand 1: ATG CCT GAC Strand 2: TAC GGA CTG Semi-conservative replication is the process by which DNA copies itself and each new piece of DNA is made up of 1 old strand and 1 new strand RNA • • • Ribonucleic acid RNA is a copy of DNA that goes out into the cytoplasm to tell the cell what to do in order to stay alive RNA is single stranded and has uracil (U) rather than thymine (T) and G binds C o U binds A ATG CCA AAG o If the DNA is: UAC GGU UUC Then the RNA will be: Using DNA to make protein • • • 1. Transcription: DNA in the nucleus is used to make messenger RNA (mRNA) o DNA has all the directions the cell needs to live 2. mRNA moves out into the cytoplasm o mRNA carries the directions to the ribosome 3. Translation: mRNA attaches to a ribosome and directs the production of a protein o Every 3 bases in mRNA is called a codon and codes for 1 amino acid o Amino acids are carried to the ribosome by transfer RNA (tRNA) Mutations • • • • A mutation is a change in a gene (DNA) If the mutation happens in a body cell, it only affects the organism that carries it If the mutation happens in a sex cell, it can be passed on to offspring Mutations can be o harmful if they reduce an organism’s chances for reproduction or survival o helpful if they improve an organism’s chances for survival o neutral if they do not produce an obvious changes in an organism • o lethal if they result in the immediate death of an organism Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by a mutagen, which is a factor in the environment like UV and chemicals Mendelian Genetics • • • • • • • • • Gregor Mendel is an Austrian monk credited with beginning the study of genetics Genetics is the study of heredity Humans have 2 genes for every trait o Alleles: Different forms of a single gene, like blue and brown are two eye color alleles Dominant gene: “Stronger” of 2 genes and shows up in the organism o Represented by a capital letter o B is the dominant gene for brown eyes Recessive gene: “Weaker” of 2 genes and only shows up when there is no dominant gene present o Represented by a lowercase letter o b is the recessive gene for blue eyes Homozygous (purebred): When 2 genes are alike for a trait o BB is homozygous for brown eyes, bb is homozygous for blue eyes Heterozygous (hybrid): When 2 genes are different for a trait o Bb is heterozygous for brown eyes Mendel’s Law of Segregation states that the 2 genes we have for each trait get separated from one another when we make egg and sperm cells Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment states that the gene for one trait is inherited independently of the genes for other traits o Only true when the genes are on different chromosomes! Punnett Squares • • • Punnett squares are charts that are used to show the possible gene combinations in a cross between 2 organisms * Let’s say that B is the dominant gene for brown eyes and b is the recessive gene for blue eyes* Genotype: The genes of an organism (Bb) Phenotype: The physical appearance of an organism (brown eyes) Parents Bb x bb Parents Bb x Bb Offspring genotype 50% Bb 50% bb B b b Bb bb b Bb bb Offspring phenotype 50% Brown eyes 50% blue eyes B b B BB Bb b Bb bb Offspring genotype 25% BB 50% Bb 25% bb Offspring phenotype 75% brown eyes 25% blue eyes Human Genetics • Multiple alleles are three or more alleles that exist for a single gene o For example, A, B, and O are the multiple alleles for blood type o The possible blood types are A, B, AB, and O Ø You can be A+ or A-, B+ or B-, AB+ or AB -, O+ or O- depending on whether your blood cells have a special Rh protein Codominance occurs when 2 dominant genes are expressed and both genes are seen in the organism • o AB blood is codominant, a cat with black and white spots is codominant, a roan horse is codominant Incomplete dominance occurs when both genes are expressed and blended together in the organism • • • o If the red flower color gene (R) is mixed with the white flower color gene (r) then the offspring will be pink (Rr) A polygenic trait is a trait that is controlled by more than one pair of genes, like skin color and height A sex-linked trait is a trait that is found on the X chromosome, such as colorblindness o Females are XX so have 2 copies of sex-linked traits o Males are XY so have 1 copy of sex-linked traits o More common in males Anatomy and Physiology Levels of Organization • • • • • • Cells à Tissues à Organs à Organ systems à Organism 4 tissue types: Epithelium, Connective, Muscle, and Nerve Relationship of structure to function is key! Homeostasis allows the body to perform its normal functions. The body’s systems interact to maintain homeostasis. Physiological feedback loop: Sensor à Integrator à Effector Thermoregulation: Sensor (skin) à Integrator (brain) à Effector (muscles or sweat glands in skin) Communication between cells is required for coordination of body functions. For example, nerves communicate with electrochemical signals; hormones circulate through the blood, and some cells produce signals to communicate only with nearby cells (ex) gap junctions in animal cells and plasmodesmata in plant cells. Skeletal/Muscular System • • • • • • • • • Bones provide support and protection Bones produce both red and white blood cells. Cartilage is a tough, elastic, connective tissue found in different parts of the body, such as joints, outer ear, and larynx. Cartilage is a major part of the embryonic and young vertebrate skeleton; it is changed into bone as you grow. Ligaments link bones Tendons attach muscle to bone 3 types of muscle: Skeletal, Smooth, and Cardiac Skeletal muscles are voluntary and pull on bones to produce movement. Skeletal muscles are always found in antagonistic pairs. Smooth muscle is involuntary. It lines the GI tract. Cardiac muscle is involuntary and makes up the heart. It is highly specialized for communication. Nervous System • • • • • • The nervous system controls communication between different parts of the body and the body’s interactions with the environment. The basic unit of the nervous system is the neuron. 3 main parts of the neuron: dendrites, cell body, axon. 1. Dendrites receive impulse 2. Cell body contains the nucleus 3. Axons carry impulse away Central nervous system: brain and spinal cord Peripheral nervous system: cranial nerves + spinal nerves Sensory neurons carry information from the environment to the spinal cord/brain (CNS) Motor neurons carry information from the spinal cord/brain (CNS) to the effectors: muscles or glands Circulatory System • • • • • The circulatory system contains: the heart, blood vessels, and blood The heart has 4 chambers: 2 upper atria and 2 lower ventricles. The atria are the receiving chambers. The ventricles are the pumping chambers. The aorta sends blood to the body. 3 main blood vessel types: Arteries, capillaries, and veins 1. Arteries carry blood away from heart 2. Veins return blood to the heart 3. Capillaries are the site of gas and nutrient/waste exchange between the blood and cells Kidneys remove nitrogenous wastes from blood. Liver removes many toxic compounds from blood. Respiratory System • • • • • • • • The respiratory system provides exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Nose à pharynx à larynx à trachea à bronchi à bronchioles à alveoli Nose: mucus and cilia to cleanse, filter, and warm air. The pharynx is your throat. It is a part of the respiratory & digestive system. The larynx is your voice box and is at the top of the trachea. The trachea is your windpipe. It branches into your lungs via left and right bronchi. Bronchi further branch into bronchioles which keep branching and eventually end at very tiny alveoli. The alveoli are the most important part of the bronchial tree: Lots of surface area for gas exchange! Alveoli are surrounded by capillaries. Digestive System • • • • • • • • The digestive system consists of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus. The digestive system converts macromolecules from food into smaller molecules that can be used by cells for energy and for repair and growth. Mouth begins both mechanical (chewing) and chemical (saliva has enzymes to break down starch) digestion Stomach continues mechanical and chemical digestion. It also begins absorption (alcohol). Most absorption of nutrients happens in the small intestine (jejunum and ileum). It is very long and has villi/microvilli for lots of surface area. Liver secretes bile (emulsify fats) into the small intestine (duodenum). Pancreas secretes pancreatic juices (lots of enzymes) into the duodenum. Reabsorption of water happens in the large intestine. Feces are expelled through the rectum out the anus. The Theory of Evolution Evolution • • • • • Evolution is a change in a species over time The theory of evolution was stated by Charles Darwin and is based on natural selection Natural selection states that organisms with traits well suited to an environment are more likely to survive and produce more offspring than organisms without these favorable traits Biodiversity: Organisms become very different from each other as they evolve and become better suited to their environments The theory of evolution is supported by evidence that includes o Adaptations: structures and behaviors that organisms have evolved in order to survive better in their environments o The fossil record which is information about all known fossils o Comparative anatomy which is when the bodies of different organisms are compared to see if they are related o o Ø Homologous structures are body structures on different organisms that are similar. Evidence of a recent common ancestor/divergent evolution. Example: human arm and whale fin. Ø Analogous structures are different body structures that serve a common purpose. Evidence of convergent evolution. Example: butterfly wing and bird wing. Ø Vestigial structures are body structures that may have served a purpose in ancient ancestors but no longer are functional in current organisms. Example: human appendix The fact that all vertebrate embryos look very similar as they develop before birth The fact that the DNA/proteins (macromolecules) of closely related organisms looks very similar Taxonomy • • • • • • Taxonomy is the science of classifying living things Organisms are organized into 7 different levels of taxonomy (King Philip came over for good spaghetti) o 5. Family o 1. Kingdom – most broad o 2. Phylum o 6. Genus o 3. Class o 7. Species – most specific o 4. Order Closely related organisms have more levels of taxonomy in common than unrelated organisms There are six kingdoms of living things (Archie eats pretty fantastic apple pies) 1. Archaebacteria: bacteria that live in extreme environments 2. Eubacteria: common bacteria 3. Protista: single-celled organisms 4. Fungi: mushrooms, yeasts, molds 5. Animalia: animals 6. Plantae: plants Every organism has a unique two-word scientific name that is written in Latin o The first word is the genus, the second word is the species (Humans are Homo sapiens) Some scientists prefer to organize organisms into domains rather than kingdoms oThere are three domains (Archie eats eels) 1. Archaea: Bacteria that live in extreme environments (prokaryotes) 2. Eubacteria: Common bacteria (prokaryotes) 3. Eukarya: Organisms whose DNA is in a nucleus (eukaryotes) Ecology Ecology • • • • • • • • • • Ecology is the study of how organisms fit into their environment A community is the organisms that live in a particular environment A habitat is the physical location of a community An ecosystem is a collection of organisms and their physical environment The diversity of an ecosystem is a measure of the number of species living there There are different feeding groups of organisms o Autotrophs: Organisms that make their own food, like plants and some bacteria o Heterotrophs: Organisms that cannot make their own food, like Ø Herbivores: Eat plants Ø Carnivores: Eat meat Ø Omnivores: Eat plants and meat There are different factors is an ecosystem o Abiotic factors are nonliving things o Biotic factors are living things, such as Ø Producers: Organisms that take in energy from their surroundings to make their own food Ø Consumers: Organisms that eat other organisms for energy Ø Decomposers: Special type of consumer that eats waste products and dead organisms for energy There are different trophic levels in a food chain o A trophic level is a feeding level in an ecosystem o A food chain is a lineup of organisms that shows who eats who o 1st trophic level is usually a producer o 2nd trophic level is a primary consumer o 3rd trophic level is a secondary consumer o 4th trophic level is a tertiary consumer o Last trophic level is a decomposer Every time an organism eats, it obtains energy from its food o Energy is transferred from the 1st to the 2nd to the 3rd trophic level and so on (but some of this energy does get lost along the way) o Energy pyramid: Picture showing how much energy is transferred to the different trophic levels in a food chain A food web is a network of connected food chains Cycles of Matter • • • • Water, nitrogen, carbon, and oxygen are recycled in the environment through cycles The Nitrogen Cycle o Nitrogen in the atmosphere is taken in by bacteria that live in plant roots o The nitrogen is passed onto the plants and any animals that eat the plants o Once the plant or animal has died, decomposers (bacteria) again take up the nitrogen in the dead material and send it back to the atmosphere The Water cycle o Precipitation, such as rain and snow, fall to the earth o The water either Ø seeps into the ground for plants to use and the plants give off excess water back to the atmosphere through transpiration Ø or runs off the land to lower-lying bodies of water where it evaporates back into the atmosphere The Oxygen-Carbon cycle o Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is taken in by plants who use it during photosynthesis and release oxygen back into the atmosphere o Oxygen in the atmosphere is taken in by animals and plants who use it during respiration and release carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere Interaction in an environment • • • • • • • • Each organism has a niche, or role, to play in its environment Competition is a struggle between organisms for resources, such as food, water, shelter Predators are organisms that catch, kill, and eat other organisms called prey Symbiosis is a close relationship between 2 organisms in which one organism lives near, on, or even inside another organisms and in which at least one organism benefits o There are three types of symbiosis o 1. Commensalism is when one of the 2 organisms benefits from the symbiosis o 2. Mutualism is when both organisms benefit from the symbiosis o 3. Parasitism is when one organism benefits (parasite) and the other organism is harmed (host) from the symbiosis Ø The parasite feeds on the host while it is still alive, weakening but not killing it An adaptation is a change in the behavior or physical characteristics of a species that make it better suited to its environment Populations of organisms increase and decrease due to overpopulation of a competitor or predator, disease, lack of food or water or shelter, and extreme weather Ecosystems are constantly changing due to changing populations of organisms, changing weather, natural disasters, and human activity Every time a change occurs, the balance of the ecosystem has to be readjusted