Physical-body Growth and Change Guide

Physical-body growth & change -average 2.5 in height 5-1 lbs per year in childhood Much of the variation was due to heredity and environmental experiences -2 contributors are: ethnic origin & nutrition Urban, middle-socioeconomic status and first born children were taller than rural lower socioeconomic status and late born children In the united states african american children are taller than white children The brain grows slow in early childhood Changes in the brain during early childhood enable children to plan their actions, attend to stimuli more effectively and make considerable strides in language development Up to four years childrens brains experience rapid, distinct spurts of growth 3-5 local patterns within the brain change 3-6 years the most rapid growth takes place in the frontal lobes called the prefrontal cortex Prefrontal cortex relates to planning and organizing new actions and maintaining attention -reaches 95% of adult volume by 6 years Changes in Childs Brain Structure -myelination: (axons) that carry signals away from cell body, nerve cell covered & insulated with fat -Increases speed for info to travel through nervous system -The number and size od dendrites increase Myelination in the brain - related to hand-eye coordination isnt complete till age 4 - related to focusing attention isnt complete till the end of middle or late childhood Myelination of aspects of the prefrontal cortex, especially those who use higher-level thinking skills, isnt completed till late adolescence or emerging adulthood Contextual factors such as poverty and parenting quality are linked to the development of the brain Motor Development -most preschool children are more active than they will ever be Gross Motor Skills -simple movements at 3 (hopping jumping and running back and forth -more adventurous at 4 ( low jungle gyms climbing stairs) -hair-raising stunts (recklessly races) Children with low level of motor competence had lower motivation to do sports and also had a lower self-worth than higher. Fine Motor Skills Perceptual Development -still clumsy at 3 ( pick up tiniest objects with thumb and forefinger) -improved by 4 ( more precise, building blocks up perfectly) -continues to improve by 5 ( hand arm body move all together) Nutrition and Exercise -caregivers “reinforce” and kid takes in causing obesity -the US has the second highest rate of childhood obesity Distractions can make us miss cues of being full. The 97th percentile are obese The 95th to 96th percentile as over-weight The 85th to 94th percentile is at risk of being overweight Physicians are now seeing type 2 diabetes in children as young as 5 Malnutrition in young childhood from low-income families -11 million preschool children are experiencing this -biggest problem is iron deficiency anemia Exercise should occur daily. In spanish speaking families it increased literacy resources and activities at home led to higher school or readiness in children When mothers joined pregnant till child was around 5 they had short term cognitive benefits and longer-term reading and math benefits Ilness and Death -leading cause of death in the US ● Accidents (unintentional injuries, followed by cancer and heart disease drowning falls and poisoning) ● Congenital malformations ● Deformities ● Chromosomal abnormalities Childrens Safety -environmental tobacco smoke -Wheezing, asthma, sleep problems ( more likely to become antisocial by 12) State of Ilness and Health of the Worlds Children -devasting effects occur in countries w/ high poverty rates -dramatic increase in deaths cause HIV/AIDS in poor countries Could be prevented by reduction in poverty, improvements in nutrition, sanitation, education, and health services. Cognitive Changes Paigets Preoperational -2-7 age -children represent the world with words, images, and drawings -past sensorimotor -cognitive are dominated by egocentrism and magical beliefs Preoperational thought: is the beginning of the ability to reconstruct in thought what has been established in behavior Operations -reversible mental actions that allow children to do mentally what they formally did physically The Symbolic Function Substage -first substage of PT (ages 2-4) -child gains the the ability to represent an object that isnt present -Use scribble designs for people cars houses and clouds etc and pretend play Intuitive Thought Substage -children use primitive reasons and want to know answers -second stages of PT (ages 4-7) -paiget called this intuitive because young children seem so sure about their knowledge and understanding Three Mountains Task -different perspectives but one does not accept it from another perspective Animism -limitation of PT -is the belief that inanimate objects have life-like qualities and capable of action Egocentrism -limitation of PT -is the inability to tell the difference between your perspective and someone elses Centration -limitation of PT -a centering of attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others -(cake all aside from pieces size) Conservation -limitation of PT -lack of awareness that altering an object or substances appearance does not change its basic properties -piaget conservation task: thin beaker and short beaker, child thinks thin beaker has more liquid when it doesnt -failure of this task proves centration but also inability to mentally reverse actions Types of Conservation -Number: two identical rows of objects are shown to the child, who agrees they have the same number, then one row is lengthened and the child is asked whether one row now has more objects. (Childs answer: Yes the longer one.) -Matter: two identical balls of clay are shown to the child, the child agrees that they are equal. Then the experimenter changes the shape of one of the balls and asks the child whether they still contain equal amounts of clay. (Childs answer: No the longer one has more.) - Length: two sticks are aligned in front of the child, the child agrees that they are the same length, then the experimenter moves one stick to the right, then asks the child if they are equal in length. (Childs answer: No, the one on the top is longer.) Vygotskys Zone of Proximal Development -children think and understand through social interaction -ZPD: is Vygotskys term for the range of tasks that are too difficult for the child to master alone but can be learned with the guidance and assistance of adults or more-skilled children. -lower limit is when the child can work independently -the upper limit is when they need assistance from the teachers or parents -ZPD’S effectiveness is better emotion regulation, secure attachment, absence of maternal depression, and child compliance. -the idea of the ZPD is the concept of scaffolding -Scaffolding: changing level of support Language and Thought -kids use speech to communicate with others and help them save tasks -private speech: use of language for self regulation (egocentric and immature instead tool of thought) -inner speech: their thoughts -more private speech: more social competence Everything is social, external, and origin (VYGOTSKY) -children must use language to communicate with others before they can focus inward on their own thoughts. -children must communicate externally and use language for a long time before they can make the transition from external to internal speech. -occurs between 3-7 years, involves talking to oneself -self-talk helps along the way and acts as a guidance Teaching Strategies on Vygotskys Theory -Assess the childs ZPD: see which difficulty is best based off of tasks instead of standardized -Use childs ZPD in teaching: begin at upper, and help them gain the higher level of skill and when assistance is needed -use more skilled peers as teachers: not only adults can help, more-skilled children can too -monitor and encourage childrens use of private speech: talking to oneself externally during preschool years, talking to oneself privately in elementary years -encourage children to internalize and self-regulate their talk to themselves -place instruction is meaningful context: instead of abstract presentations we use real world settings. ex) plain math but math in word problems Evaluating Vygostksys Theory -Social Constructivist Approach: it emphasizes the social contexts of learning and the construction of knowledge through social interaction. -Criticism -not specific enough about age-related changes -does not describe how changes in socio-emotional capabilities contribute to cognitive development -overemphasized the role of language in thinking Comparison between Vygotsky and Piaget Sociocultural Context: Constructivism: Stages: Key Processes: Role of Language: View on Education: Vygotsky -strong emphasis -social constructivist -no general stages of development proposed -zone of proximal dvpt, language, dialogue, tools of the culture - a major role, language plays a powerful role in shaping thought -education plays a Piaget -less emphasis -cognitive constructivist -strong emphasis on stages -schema, assimilation, accommodation, operations, conservation classification -language has a minimal role, cognition primarily directs language -education merely refines the Teaching Implications: central role, helping children learn the tools of culture -teacher is a guide not a director, establish many opportunities for children to learn with the teacher and more skilled peers childs cognitive skills that have already emerged -also sees teacher as a facilitator not a director, provide support for children to explore their world and discover knowledge Information-Processing Theory -Executive Attention: involves planning actions, allocating attention to goals, detecting and compensating for errors, monitoring processing on tasks, and dealing with novel or difficult circumstances. -Sustained Attention: also referred as vigilance, is focused and extended engagement with an object, task, event, or other aspect of th environment Although older children and adolescents show increases in vigilance, it is during the preschool years that individuals show the greatest increase in vigilance Salient versus Relevant Dimensions -preschool are more likely to pay attention to stimuli and stand out, or are salient, even when those stimuli are not relevant to solving a problem or performing a task. -attend more better when dimensions are relevant, instead of the directions Planfulness -when children are asked to describe two complex pictures the child will use a haphazard comparison method (not examining the whole picture then make a judgement) -six year olds have fragmentary planfulness of attention -older children are more detailed and accurate Memory-the retention of information over time-- is a central process in childrens cognitive development Infants capacity to remember is distinguished in 2 memories. Explicit Memory -comes in many forms One distinction is between relatively permanent or long term memory or short term memory. Short-Term Memory -retain info for 30 seconds if there is no rehearsal of information -can keep info in short-term for a long time due to rehearsal -use a memory-span task: a short list of stimuli usually numbers then asked to repeat -increases at early childhood The speed of processing explanation highlights a key point in a info-processing perspective: the speed is an important aspect of the childs cognitive abilities and it improves through the childhood years Myelination is linked to processing speed. How accurate are young childrens long-term memories? -there are age differences in childrens susceptibility to suggestion - ex) preschoolers are most susceptible to believing misleading information, but there is still concern about the reaction of older kids when they are subjected to suggestive interviews - there are individual differences in susceptibility - some preschoolers are highly resistant to interviewers suggestions whereas others take the slightest suggestion -interviewing techniques can produce substantial distortions in childrens reports about highly salient events -kids will make false claims half the time when it really didnt happen, and when children do recall the situation the interviewer made sure to not miss any questions and avoids asking misleading questions when there is no reason for the child to lie Autobiographical Memory ( an aspect of long-term memory) -involves memory of significant events and experiences in ones life -ones that stand out in your life (first grade teacher) Executive Functioning- higher level cognitive processes linked to the development of the brains prefrontal cortex Describes several functions: planning and inhibition, that are important for flexible, future oriented behavior, connected to TOMD -involves managing ones thoughts to engage in goal directed behavior and exercise self-control -”the marshmallow experiment”: using self-distraction to delay gratification for the purpose of receiving 2 marshmallows on the researchers return linked to later success in life -linked to executive attention:(Executive Attention: involves planning actions, allocating attention to goals, detecting and compensating for errors, monitoring processing on tasks, and dealing with novel or difficult circumstances.) Cool thoughts- singing songs picking their noses etc Hot thoughts- focused on the object presented to them Executive function and parenting skills are linked homeless childrens success in school. “Parents model, they support, and they scaffold these skills.” -----Theory of Mind- awareness of ones own mental process the the mental process of others Developmental Changes View the child as a “thinker who is trying to explain, predict, and understand people thoughts, feelings and utterances” -18 mo to 3 years: children begin to understand three mental states -perceptions, desires, and emotions Perceptions: the child sees from someone elses eyes instead of their own Emotions: can tell from positive and negative emotions Desires: they want something they will try to get it -3-5 years: they understand false beliefs -5-9 years: deepening appreciation of the mind -7+ years: understand the beliefs and thoughts of others Individual Differences and Factors Influencing Theory of Mind -executive function and advances in prefrontal cortex functioning -language development -higher socioeconomic status family -children with autism have difficulty developing a theory of mind Language Development -between ages 2-3 they begin to start saying complex sentences instead of simple sentences Understanding phonology and morphology Phonology: refers to the sound system of a language, including the sounds used and how they may be combined Morphology: refers to the units of meaning involved in word formation -during preschool years -become sensitive to the sounds of spoken words -produce all the sounds of their language -demonstrate a knowledge of morphology rules -use plurals, possessives, prepositions, articles, and verb forms Stimuli in Berkos Study of Young Childrens Understanding of Morphological Rules -young children can intuit morphological rules When children were shown pictures of a bird-like “wug”, they asked what two of them were, children responded “wugs” Changes in Semantics and Syntax There is two important differences in asking wh- questions and affirmative statements 1. A wh- word must be added at the beginning of the sentence 2. The auxiliary verb must be exchanged with the subject of the sentence Children learn early where to put the wh- word but not the auxiliary-inversion rule -between 18 mo and 6 years they learn an average of one word every waking hour by the time they enter first grade they know about 14,000 words -fast mapping: contrasts to familiar word, children learn the connection between a word and its referent quickly -learn and apply rules of syntax 6 Key Principles in Vocab. Development Children learn the words: -they hear most often -for things and events that interest them -better in responsive and interactive contexts than passive contexts -best when contexts are meaningful -best when accessing clear information about word meaning -best when grammar and vocabulary are considered Advances in Pragmatics Pragmatics: the appropriate use of language in different contexts, also characterize young childrens language development Speech adapted in different settings Positive orientation toward reading and writing must be developed. -Importance of early language skills -phonological awareness -readiness for school -reading achievement in high school Young Children's Literacy Books can be a valuable tool. -use books to initiate conversation -use what and why questions -encourage children to ask questions about stories -include books that play with language Early Childhood Education -variations in early childhood education -education for young children who are disadvantaged -controversies in early childhood education Education for young children who are disadvantaged. -Project Head Start: compensatory program designed to provide children from low-income families -opportunity to acquire the skills and experiences important for success in school Perry Preschool Program- another high-quality early childhood eduction program -weekly home visits -fewer teen pregnancies -better high school graduation rates -at 40 most likely to be in workforce, have house, have savings account and have less arrests -Controversies in early childhood education -Curriculum Controversy -academic approaches pressure young children to achieve, dont provide chances to actively construct knowledge, and dont focus on cognitive and socioemotional development -Universal preschool education -critics: more important to improve preschool education for disadvantaged children -controversy continues around implementing universal preschool education Child-centered Kindergarten: education of the whole child and concern for his or her physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development -kindergartens focused on developmental status of 4 and 5 year olds emphasize experimenting, exploring, discovering, trying out, restructuring, speaking, and listening. Montessori Approach: child is given freedom and spontaneity in choosing activities and develops cognitive skills -criticisms: it deemphasizes verbal interactions, restricts imaginative play, and may not allow for creativity and a variety of learning styles. Developmentally appropriate and inappropriate education -developmentally appropriate practice (DAP): typical developmental patterns of children and the uniqueness of each child -generalizing about developmentally appropriate education is challenging -developmentally appropriate education is an evolving concept -sociocultural factors are taking on more importance -consideration about teachers involvement