Sport and Exercise Psychology Notes

Chapter 1 Notes (Sports discus website) - - - - Sport and exercise psychology is the scientific study of people and their behaviors in sport and exercise contexts and the practical application of that knowledge Sport and exercise psychologists identify principles and guidelines that professionals can use to help adults and children participate in and benefit from sport and exercise activities. ABC’s: o A – affect (one’s feelings) o B – behavior (one’s actions) o C – cognitions (one’s thoughts) Objectives of sports and exercise psychology o Understand how psychological factors affect an individual’s physical performance o Understand how participation in sport and exercise affects a person’s psychological development, health, and well-being Contemporary sport psychologists pursue a variety of careers. They serve three primary roles in their professional activities: 1. Conducting research: Most sport and exercise psychologists in university conduct research. Sport psychologists then share their findings with colleagues and participants in the field. This sharing produces advances, discussion, and healthy debate at professional meetings and in journals 2. Teaching: sport and exercise psychology specialists teach university courses such as exercise and health psychology, applied sport psychology, and the social psychology of sport. teach courses such as personality psychology or developmental psychology if they work in a psychology department, or courses such as motor learning and control or sport sociology if they work in a kinesiology or sport science program 3. Consulting: consulting with individual athletes or athletic teams to develop skills for enhancing competitive performance and training. - - Clinical sport psychologists have extensive training in psychology, so they can detect and treat individuals with emotional disorders (e.g., severe depression, suicidal tendencies). Educational sport psychology specialists have extensive training in sport and exercise science, physical education, and kinesiology, and they understand the psychology of human movement, particularly as it relates to sport and exercise contexts. (Mental coach) History of Sport and Exercise Psychology: Sport and exercise psychology has a long and rich history dating back more than 100 years. Its history falls into six periods. - The first period, the early years (1893– 1920), is characterized by isolated studies. - During the second period (1921–1938), sport psychology laboratories and psychological testing took place at a number of locations around the world. In the United States, Coleman Griffith became the first American to specialize in the area. - The third period, preparation for the future (1939–1965), is characterized by the field’s scientific development attributable to the educational efforts of Franklin Henry. During the establishment of the academic discipline (1966–1977), sport and exercise psychology became a valued component of the academic discipline of physical education. The fifth period, multidisciplinary science and practice (1978–1999), is characterized by tremendous growth as the field became more accepted and respected by the public. Interest in applied issues and the growth and development of exercise psychology were evident. Training in the field took a more multidisciplinary perspective, and the field wrestled with a variety of professional practice issues. - The final period of contemporary sport and exercise psychology (2000–present) has been distinguished by continued growth worldwide, considerable diverse research, and interest in application and consulting. Exercise psychology flourishes. Chapter 2 Notes - - - - - - The scientific method dictates a systematic approach to studying a question. It involves standardizing the conditions; for example, one might assess the children’s self-esteem under identical conditions with a carefully designed measure. The scientific method involves control of conditions. Key variables, or elements in the research (e.g., movement education or changes in self-esteem), are the focus of study, and other variables are controlled (e.g., the same person doing the teaching) so they do not influence the primary relationship. The scientific method is empirical, which means it is based on observation. Objective evidence must support beliefs, and this evidence must be open to outside evaluation and observation. The scientific method is critical, meaning that it involves rigorous evaluation by the researcher and other scientists. Critical analysis of ideas and work helps ensure that conclusions are reliable. A scientist’s ultimate goal is a theory, or a set of interrelated facts that present a systematic view of some phenomenon in order to describe, explain, and predict its future occurrences. Theory derives from the following: o Describing - - - - o Explaining o Predicting o Controlling Study: The investigator observes or assesses without changing the environment in any way. Experiment: The investigator manipulates variables while observing them, then examines how changes in one or more variables affect changes in others. Sport and exercise psychology is above all a science. For this reason you need to understand the basic scientific process and how scientific knowledge is developed. Scientific knowledge alone, however, is not enough to guide professional practice. You must also understand how professional practice knowledge develops. Scientific knowledge must be integrated with the knowledge gained from professional practice. Integrating scientific and professional practice knowledge will greatly benefit you as you work in applied sport and exercise settings. Several approaches can be taken to sport and exercise psychology, including the psychophysiological, social–psychological, and cognitive–behavioral orientations.. o Psychophysiological sport psychologists study physiological processes of the brain and their influence on physical activity. o Social–psychological sport psychologists focus on how complex interactions between the social environment and personal makeup of the athlete or exerciser influence behavior. o Cognitive–behavioral sport psychologists examine how an individual’s thoughts determine behavior. Although more career opportunities exist today than ever before, only a limited number of full-time consulting positions are available. Sport and exercise psychology is flourishing and has much to offer those interested in working in sport and physical activity settings. Trends point to such future directions as an increased interest in psychological skills training and applied work, more counseling and clinical training for sport psychologists, increased emphasis on ethics and competence, increased specialization, some continuing tension between academic and applied sport psychologists, more qualitative research, and the need to take a global perspective. Chapter 3 Notes Personality and its Structure: - Personality: The characteristics or blend of characteristics that make a person unique - The structure of personality: o Psychological core o Typical responses o Role-related behavior Physiological Core: - The most basic and deepest attitudes, values, interests, motives, and self-worth of a person—the real person - Example: A person’s religious values Typical Responses: - The way one typically adjusts or responds to the environment - Example: Being happy-golucky, shy Role-Related Behavior - How one acts in a particular social situation - Example: Behavior as a student, parent, or friend Approaches to Understanding Personality: - Psychodynamic approach - Trait approach - Situation approach - Interactional approach - Phenomenological approach - Integrated, or biopsychosocial, approach - Define approach - Current impact - Weakness - Contribution Measuring Personality: - Measure both traits and states: o A trait is a typical style of behavior. o State is the situation’s effect on behavior—a “right now” feeling that can change from moment to moment. - There are general versus situation-specific (sport-specific) measures. - Situation-specific trait tests predict behavior more accurately than do general trait measures. - It is often more effective to compare personality test scores to a person’s own previous test results than to group norms. - Projective tests are interesting but difficult to score. Dos and Don’ts in Personality Testing: DO - Inform participants about the purpose of the personality test and exactly how it will be used. - Allow only qualified individuals who understand testing principles and measurement error to give personality tests. - Integrate personality test results with other information obtained about the participant. - Use sport- and exercise-specific tests whenever possible, giving them in consultation with a sport psychologist. - Use both state and trait measures of personality. - Provide participants with specific feedback concerning the results of the test. - Compare individuals against their own baseline levels rather than against normative information. DON’T - Use clinical personality tests that focus on abnormality to study an average population of sport and exercise participants. - Use personality tests to decide who makes a team or program and who doesn’t. - Give or interpret personality tests unless you are qualified to do so by the APA or another certifying organization. - Use personality tests to predict behavior in sport and exercise settings without considering other sources of information. Selected Findings in Personality Research: - Some relationship exists between personality traits and states and sport performance, but it is far from perfect or precise. - Consistent personality differences distinguish athletes from nonathletes. However, these differences tend to be very small. - Personality alone doesn’t account for behavior in sport and exercise. - No single definitive personality profile has been found that consistently distinguishes athletes from nonathletes. - Few personality differences are evident between male and female athletes, particularly at the elite level. - - - Morgan’s (1980) mental health model shows that successful athletes exhibit greater positive mental health than do less successful athletes. However, precise predictions have not been achieved and should not be used for team selection. Extroversion and conscientiousness are positively related to physical activity involvement, while neuroticism is negatively related. Initial evidence points to the importance of grit in predicting athlete and exerciser performance and motivation. Type A behavior patterns (particularly the anger–hostility component) that are associated with cardiovascular disease might be alterable via exercise. Exercise and increased fitness appear to be associated with increases in self-esteem, especially in individuals with low self-esteem. Cognitive Strategies and Athletic Success: - Cognitive strategies and mental strategies are among the skills and behaviors that athletes use in competition. - Although they’re not personality traits in the traditional sense, cognitive strategies reflect the behavior aspect of personality and interact with personality characteristics. - Both quantitative and qualitative cognitive strategy measures have been shown to differentiate between more and less successful athletes. - Overachieving high school athletes scored higher on coachability, concentration, coping with adversity, and total cognitive strategy than average and underachieving athletes. - Cognitive strategies have been shown to be related to superior performance in elite sport. - Elite athletes show superior ability to cope with adversity and mentally prepare compared to nonelite athletes. - Olympic medal winning wrestlers more often used positive self-talk, had a narrower and more immediate focus of attention, and were better prepared mentally for unforeseen negative events. - Mental preparation and planning are critical components of athletic success. Cognitive Strategies and Athletic Success: Guidelines for Practice: - Enhance confidence and practice specific plans to deal with adversity during competition. - Practice routines to deal with unusual circumstances and distractions before and during competition. - Concentrate wholly on the upcoming performance and block out irrelevant events and thoughts. - Use several mental rehearsals before competition. - Don’t worry about other competitors before a competition; instead, focus on what you can control. - Develop detailed competition plans. - Learn to regulate arousal and anxiety. Your Role in Understanding Personality: - Consider both personality traits and situations. - Be an informed consumer. - Be a good communicator. - Be a good observer. - Be knowledgeable about mental strategies. Nature Versus Nurture and Gravitation Versus Change: - The question of whether personality is determined genetically (by nature) or through the environment (by nurture) is highly relevant to sport and physical activity professionals. - Although this issue has not been studied in sport and exercise psychology per se, general psychological research shows that personality both has a genetic base (up to 60%) and that it is influenced by learning. - Both extreme positions regarding nature versus nurture, then, are false. Chapter 4 Notes - - Motivation is the direction and intensity of effort. o Direction of effort refers to whether an individual seeks out, approaches, or is attracted to situations. o Intensity of effort refers to how much effort an individual puts forth in a situation. Direction and intensity of effort are closely related. Views of Motivation - Trait-centered view: Motivated behavior is primarily a function of individual characteristics. - Situation-centered view: Motivation level is determined primarily by situation. - Interactional view: Motivated behavior results from the interaction of participant factors and situational factors. Five Guidelines for Building Motivation - Guideline 1: Consider both situations and traits in motivating people. - Guideline 2: Understand people’s multiple motives for involvement. - Guideline 3: Change the environment to enhance motivation. o Provide both competitive and recreational opportunities. o Provide multiple motives and opportunities. o Adjust to individuals in groups. - Guideline 4: Influence motivation. o Leader actions and inactions influence participant motivation. o Infuse variety in programming. o Use technology to enhance motivation. - Guideline 5: Use behavior modification to change undesirable participant motives. Self-Determination Theory - Self-determination theory contends that people are motivated to satisfy three general needs: o Competence (e.g., “I am a good runner.”) o Autonomy (e.g., A pitcher loves to decide what pitches to throw and to have the fate of the game in his or her hands.) o Social connectedness or belonging (e.g., A soccer player loves to be part of the team.) Achievement Motivation and Competitiveness - Achievement motivation: A person’s orientation to strive for task success, persist in the face of failure, and experience pride in accomplishments (Gill, 2000) - Competitiveness: A disposition to strive for satisfaction when making comparisons with some standard of excellence in the presence of evaluative others (Martens, 1976) Keys to Achievement Motivation and Competitiveness - Achievement motivation: Self-comparison of achievement - Competitiveness: Social evaluation or comparison Theories of Achievement Motivation - Need achievement theory - Attribution theory Achievement goal theory Competence motivation theory Attribution Theory - Attributions: How people explain their successes and failures - Examples include the following: o Stability o Locus of causality o Locus of control Achievement Goal Theory - According to the achievement goal theory, one is motivated by one’s “interpretation” of what it takes to achieve success. - However, success for one person may not be success for another person. - Success may be achieved by beating others in competition, or success may be achieved by learning or mastering a task. - Ego goal orientation (or competitive goal orientation): Comparing performance with and defeating others - Task (mastery) goal orientation: Improving relative to one’s own past performances - Social goal orientation: Judging competence in terms of affiliation with the group and recognition of being liked by others - Entity view: Adopting an outcome goal focus where one sees one’s ability as fixed and unable to be changed through effort - Incremental focus: Adopting a task goal perspective and believing that one can change his or her ability through hard work and effort - Approach goal orientation: Focusing on achieving competence - Avoidance goal orientation: Focusing on avoiding incompetence Achievement Goal Theory: Motivational Climate - Social climates of achievement settings can vary significantly on such things as the tasks that learners are asked to perform, student–teacher authority patterns, recognition systems, student ability groupings, evaluation procedures, and times allotted for activities to be performed. - With a motivational climate of task goal (versus ego) orientation, there are more adaptive motivational patterns, such as positive attitudes, increased effort, and effective learning strategies. Keys of Achievement Goal Theory - Focus extra attention on task-oriented goals. - Foster mastery or task motivational climates. - Encourage approach goals. Keys of Competence Motivation Theory - People are motivated to feel worthy or competent. - Athletes’ perceptions of competence and control are critical determinants of whether they will strive toward achievement. - Enhancing perceived competence and control should be primary goals of professionals in exercise and sport science. Stages of Developing Achievement Motivation and Competitiveness - People are motivated to feel worthy or competent. - Athletes’ perceptions of competence and control are critical determinants of whether they will strive toward achievement. - Enhancing perceived competence and control should be primary goals of professionals in exercise and sport science. Keys to Developing Achievement Motivation and Competitiveness - Recognize stage of achievement motivation. - Ultimate goal is the integrated stage. - Motivational climate influences achievement motivation. Chapter 5 Arousal, Stress, and Anxiety - Arousal is a blend of physiological and psychological activation, varying in intensity along a continuum. - Anxiety is a negative emotional state with feelings of worry, nervousness, and apprehension associated with activation or arousal of the body. State and Trait Anxiety and Their Relationship - State anxiety refers to an emotional state characterized by subjective, consciously perceived feelings of apprehension and tension, accompanied by or associated with activation or arousal of the autonomic nervous system. It is a right-now feeling of nervousness and apprehension that can change from moment to moment. - State anxiety can be of two types: o Cognitive state anxiety - o Somatic state anxiety Cognitive state anxiety is the degree to which one worries or has negative thoughts. Somatic state anxiety concerns the moment-to-moment changes in perceived physiological activation. Perceived control state anxiety is the degree to which one believes one has the resources and ability to meet challenges. Trait anxiety is a personality disposition that is stable over time. It is an acquired disposition that predisposes a person to perceive a wide range of objectively non dangerous circumstances as threatening and to respond to these with disproportionate state anxiety levels. Emotions and Sport and Exercise Psychology - Emotions are “an organized psychophysiological reaction to ongoing relationships with the environment, most often, but not always, interpersonal or social, involving subjective experiences, observable actions or impulses to act, and physiological change” (Lazarus, 2000). - Emotions are both positive (e.g., pleasure) and negative (e.g., shame). - Common emotions include anger, anxiety, fright, guilt, shame, sadness, envy, jealousy, happiness, pride, relief, hope, love, gratitude, and compassion. - Different emotions (e.g., anxiety, anger, happiness) have been found to influence performance either positively or negatively. - Sport and physical activity participation influences emotions. Stress and the Stress Process - Stress: A substantial imbalance between physical and psychological demands placed on an individual and his or her response capability under conditions in which failure to meet demands has important consequences - Stress process: Implications of the stress process for practice (intervene at any of the stress process stages) Chapter 6 Notes Competition and Cooperation Cooperative: Human Knot and Volleyball Competitive: Relay racing and Dodgeball Volleyball, the cooperative means having to work as a group to keep the ball off the ground. Human knot is cooperative because it forces 2+ people to work together to untangle themselves For human knot, cooperation is a key component because you cannot undo the knot if one person is attempting to overcontrol the situation. You have to work with your partner(s) to get the knot undone. With dodgeball, you can choose who your opponent is (ie getting the weakest links out first). You can also choose the strongest/fastest players to be on your team to help you excel - Competition: A social process that occurs when rewards are given to people for how their performance compares with the performances of others during the same task or when participating in the same event. - Cooperation: A social process through which performance is evaluated and rewarded in terms of the collective achievement of a group of people working together to reach a particular goal. Competition Versus Decompetition - Partnership is the essence of competition as one’s competitor enables the other to compete. - True competitors value fairness and strive with each other to reach new levels of excellence. - Decompetition occurs when opponents see each other as rivals, with winning as the ultimate goal. The Competition Process (Marten’s Model) - Stage 1: An objective competitive situation is a situation in which performance is compared with some standard of excellence in the presence of at least one other person who is aware of the comparison. - Stage 2: The subjective competitive situation is how the person perceives, accepts, and appraises the objective competitive situation (influenced by personality factors such as competitiveness). - Stage 3: Response is whether a person approaches or avoids an objective competitive situation (at the behavioral, physiological, and psychological levels). - Stage 4: Consequences is whether a person approaches or avoids an objective competitive situation (at the behavioral, physiological, and psychological levels). Chapter Diversity and Inclusion Notes Chapter 7 Feedback, Reinforcement, and Intrinsic Motivation Notes Feedback Reinforcement is the use of rewards and punishments that increase or decrease the likelihood of a similar response occurring in the future. Chapter Communication Notes Chapter Imagery Notes Mental Imagery in Sports Video Questions: 1. What is mental imagery? - The process of creating a mental image or intention of what you want to happen or achieve 2. What are other names for mental imagery? - Visualization and mental imagery 3. What team did Coleman Griffith work for? - The Chicago Cubs 4. Perceived as a key mental skill to give performers of all levels a final edge - Mental imagery and visualization 5. Benefits: - Increased overall performance - Increased skill development - Increased confidence - Preparation for tough moments - Reduces of stress and anxiety 6. How do you do it? - Focus on outcomes and their pathways - Use all of your senses - Play it in real-time Science Benefits of Visualization for Athletes Video Notes: - our brains cannot tell the difference between an actual physical event and the vivid visualization of that same event - - Reticular activating system (part of the brain) – practicing visualization can prime your reticular activating system to help you notice and focus on important information during competitions Visualization can increase strength How to Visualize like a Pro Video Questions: 1. What are cognitive functions of visual imagery? - Plan - Practice - Prepare 2. What are cognitive and motivational functions? Motivational Functions- imagine yourself making a game winning shot or achieving a longterm goal or more generally imaging yourself thinking positive thoughts, deep breaths, and having a flawless performance. 3. What is an example of cognitive specific visual imagery? Cognitive general visual imagery? - Imaging yourself correctly executing a sports skill. For example, chipping a ball onto the green or beating an opponent. - Imagining success in different situations during your competition even in undesirable situations. For example, imagining yourself being taking down but remaining calm and composed and finding a way to overcome adversity. 4. Internal vs. external perspective? - Some skills benefit from using internal imagery and other benefit from using external imagery. Not one is better than the other. 5. Use of imagery with veteran athletes versus those new to a sport. - In sports visual imagery is just as beneficial as the actual physical practice when you’re an athlete veteran. When an athlete is new to the sport visual imagery is important but so is the actual number of hours of physical training needed to be become better. 6. Three tips for making visual imagery successful. - Make your visual imagery as real as possible. - Be consistent - Have fun and think big How to Reach Flow States Video Notes: 1. What is a "flow state?" - Flow is defined as an optimal state of consciousness a state where you feel your best and perform your best. More specifically the term refers to those moments when you are so focused on the task at hand that everything else disappears, your mind goes quiet, and your actions happen with ease. Your sense of self vanishes and your sense of time distorts either speeds up, or occasionally slows down. - During flow state we experience transient hypofrontality which means you experience less activity in the prefrontal cortex of the brain, which is the part of the brain that is responsible for thinking and planning. So while the prefrontal cortex is quiet, the other parts of our brain that are responsible for skill execution and focus are able to function better without hesitation. 2. How does focus drive flow? - When an athlete has complete concentration they can reach flow state. 3. How does skill set affect flow? - An athletes skill has to correctly match the challenge otherwise flow state wont be obtainable. Therefore, the challenge skill ration has to be balanced. 4. Consider how mental imagery can help an athlete enter the flow state? - When an athlete uses mental imagery, they are focusing on what they need to accomplish and achieve a goal. Focusing is what enables an athlete to enter the flow state. As a result, when an athlete is has already mentally experienced a game element or a move, they may be in the flow state since they have repeatedly practiced the action in their minds.