Chapter 04 Cortical Organization

Chapter 04: Cortical Organization. Multiple Choice 1. The can be described as the electronic map of the retina on the cortex. a b. visual map spatial map retinotopic map d cortextual map ANSWER: 2. The cortical magnification factor occurs in humans because a. a small area in the peripheral retina accounts for a large area on the cortex b. the small area of the fovea accounts for a large area on the cortex c. the lens accommodates so that the image is magnified on the retina d. the area at the optic disk accounts for a large area on the cortex ANSWER: b 3. The brain imaging technique that creates images of structures in the brain, but cannot indicate neural activity, is b. IMRI Ablation PET scan MRI ANSWER: 4. The brain imaging technique that tracks blood flow in the brain using magnetic fields is b IMRI ablation ERP PET scan d ANSWER: 5. Dougherty et al. (2003) used brain imaging to investigate cortical magnification. Their primary finding was that a. information presented in the peripheral vision activated the most brain area b. information presented to the fovea activated the most brain area c. moving stimuli activated different brain areas than stationary stimuli d. cortical magnification is not detectable using fMRI ANSWER: b 6. Using the techniques of both recording from neurons and ablation, researchers found that properties of the ventral and dorsal streams are established by two different types of cells in the retina, which transmit signals to different layers of the bipolar; hippocampus b. ganglion; hippocampus ganglion, LGN d. bipolar; hippocampus Name Clas Dat e Chapter 04: Cortical Organization ANSWER: 7. Ocular columns are columns in which neurons respond better to input from one eye than to the other. b. preference dominance Orientation d ANSWER: laterality b 8. An electrode is placed in an orientation column that responds best to orientations of 45 degrees. The adjacent column of cells will probably best respond to orientations of 5 degrees 40 degrees 90 degrees d 175 degrees ANSWER: 9. Which statement is true regarding the organization of columns in the cortex? a. A location column can contain many orientation columns. b. An orientation column can contain many location columns. c. Location and orientation columns are located in different parts of the cortex. d. Action columns are present in both location and orientation columns. ANSWER: 10. A(n) retina. is a location column that receives information about all possible orientations within a given area of the b supercolumn b. orientation d. hypercolumn action ANSWER: 11. Neuroris respond preferentially to the right eye or the left eye. This phenomenon is referred to as hemispheric specialization b. bilateral dominance retinotopic disparity d. ocular dominance ANSWER: 12. The arrangement of ocular dominance columns in the cortex is best described as a. columns for both the left eye and right eye in each hypercolumn b. columns for the left eye in the left hemisphere and for the right eye in the right c. groupings of left eye columns adjacent to groupings of right eye columns d Name Clas Dat e Chapter 04: Cortical Organization d. concentric areas, with the center columns for the left eye, and the surrounding columns for the right ANSWER: 13. A large object, such as a tree trunk, will cause a. every neuron in one location column to fire, but no firing in any other column b. a limited number of neurons to fire in only one ocular dominance column c. firing of neurons in a number of different columns d. every neuron in an orientation column to fire, but not in the location columns. ANSWER: 14. When looking at a scene, the different sections of the scene are processed by many different location columns. Through the use of all of the location columns, the entire scene can be perceived. This effect is referred to as a b. fielding orientation d. convergence. tiling ANSWER: d 15. Zghsx#8j, a visitor from another planet, is curious about cars. She takes the battery out of the car, and finds out that the car won't start and the lights and stereo don't work. Her "research" is most closely related to the method called ablation transcranial magnetic stimulation b. c. transcendental mediation d microstimulation ANSWER: 16. Ablation is a procedure in which a. a radioactive isotope is injected into the bloodstream and traced through the brain b. electrodes on the scalp are used to measure changes in brain activity c. a particular area of the brain is removed or destroyed d. an electromagnetic pulse is used to temporarily disrupt brain activity ANSWER: 17. Object discrimination problem is to the as a landmark discrimination problem is to the д. temporal lobes; parietal lobes b. parietal lobes; temporal lobes parietal lobes; occipital lobes d LGN; thalamus ANSWER: 18. In Ungerleider and Mishkin's (1982) research, monkeys who had had their temporal lobes removed had difficulty coordinating their movements b. discriminating between objects Name Chapter 04: Cortical Organization. c. discriminating between locations d. remembering sequences of actions, ANSWER 19. The dorsal pathway goes to the lobe. temporal b. frontal parietal d ANSWER: Clas Dat occipital 20. The ventral pathway has also been labeled the " "pathway. where b. how What d. Why ANSWER: 21. Which statement regarding the dorsal and ventral pathways is most accurate? a. Information flow is unidirectional in both pathways. b. The pathways rely on information from the same type of ganglion cells. c. The pathways are independent of each other and do not communicate. d. Both pathways have feedback activation. ANSWER: 22. According to Milner and Goodale, the dorsal stream is the " "pathway. what when how why ANSWER: 23. A researcher finds that damage to Area A of the brain results in the loss of Function A, but not Function B. In another individual, damage to Area B results in the loss of Function B, but not Function A. These results are best described as a(n) associative link b. double dissociation single dissociation. d. differential assessment. ANSWER: 24. The results of the patient D.F., who had visual form agnosia, show that a. perception and action are independent of each other in the brain Name Clas Dat Chapter 04: Cortical Organization. b. the same brain areas are involved in visual orientation and oriented action e. the inability to draw items is due to a lack of general knowledge d. double dissociations do not occur in these patients ANSWER: 25. Ganel et al. (2008) designed a modified Ponzo (visual) illusion in which line 1 appears to be longer than line 2, when, in reality, line 2 is longer. Participants are asked to judge the line lengths and to reach and grab the ends of the lines. The results of this investigation reveal a. the interaction of the ventral and dorsal stream b. that the visual illusion affects both the ventral and dorsal streams c. the effects of damage to the ventral pathway d. that the illusion only affects ventral stream processing ANSWER: lesion b. 26. A structure that is specialized to process information about a particular type of stimulus is called a d module Partition d. Pathway ANSWER: 27. The principle that specific functions are served by specific cortical areas is called a Magnification b. modularity distribution d. segmentation ANSWER: 28. An IT neuron in the monkey will fire briskly when presented a picture of a monkey's face Tree banana d human torso ANSWER: 29. Tsao et al. (2006) found that of neurons in the monkey IT cortex were face selective. a. 12% b. 97% C. 70% d. 43% ANSWER: 30. An area in the called the is specialized to recognize faces. b Name Chapter 04: Cortical Organization temporal lobe; FFA b occipital lobe; RBC с. parietal lobe; FFA d. parietal lobe; area 4H ANSWER: 31. Prosopagnosia is a. the difficulty in recognizing familiar faces b. due to damage to the parietal lobe c. due to damage to the MT cortex d. the inability to detect movement ANSWER: Clas Dat 32. Activity in the PPA a reveals a preference for indoor, but not outdoor, scenes b. is higher for pictures of empty rooms than furnished rooms c. reveals a preference for body parts over faces d. is the same for pictures of furnished and empty rooms ANSWER: 33. The EBA is activated by a. pictures of houses and other manmade structures b. pictures of bodies and parts of bodies c. direct eye gaze from another individual d. tasks that require spatial information ANSWER: b 34. Patient H.M. had his removed in order to control his epileptic seizures. Hippocampi b. IT cortex striate cortex d. corpus callosum ANSWER 35. The primary deficit encountered by patient H.M. is best described as the inability to discriminate between faces b. perceive different line orientations C. form new long-term memories. d use information from the "where" pathway ANSWER: 36. In the "Halle Berry" study, Quiroga et al. found that the Halle Berry neuron is best described as responding to the of Ms. Berry. Name Chapter 04: Cortical Organization. visual features face d. associations concept Clas Dat ANSWER: d 37. Gelbard-Sagiv et al. (2008) monitored individual MTL neurons while displaying video clips of a variety of stimuli. They were able to identify neurons that respond preferentially to a visual stimulus. Later, they asked participants to and found preferential activation of the same neuron to the video clip concept. a. view pictures from various viewpoints b. view the same video clips, but with an altered color pallet c. try to remember the video clips they had seen. d. draw a picture representing the video clip ANSWER: 38. refers to the fact that the response properties of neurons can be shaped by what an animal or person perceives. Selective adaptation Experience-dependent plasticity b c. Sensory integration. d. Perceptual analysis ANSWER: 39. The effect occurs because humans have more cortical neurons that respond to horizontal and vertical orientations than slanted orientations. oblique b. transverse parallel box b ANSWER: 40. After training participants on the recognition of "Greeble" stimuli, Gauthier et al. found that the neuron in the FFA responded a. as well to Greebles as to human faces b. weakly to Greebles, but strong activity to human faces c. unpredictably to Greebles, and inhibited activity for human faces d. weakly to Greebles, and decreased activity to human faces ANSWER: 41. Gauthier et al.'s Greeble finding is consistent with the hypothesis. maturation oblique Rivalry d Expertise Name Clas Dat Chapter 04: Cortical Organization ANSWER Essay 42. (a) Describe research that shows cortical magnification occurs in humans. (b) What is the connection between cortical magnification and acuity? ANSWER: Even though the fovea accounts for only 0.01 percent of the retina's area, signals from the fovea account for 8 to 10 percent of the retinotopic map on the cortex (Van Essen & Anderson, 1995). This apportioning of a large area on the cortex to the small fovea is called cortical magnification. The extra cortical space allotted to letters and words at which the person is looking provides the extra neural processing needed to accomplish tasks such as reading that require high visual acuity (Azzopardi & Cowey, 1993).. 43. Describe how an object such as a tree is represented in the striate cortex. ANSWER: The continuous tree trunk is represented by the firing of neurons sensitive to a specific orientation in a number of separate columns in the cortex. Although it may be a bit surprising that the tree is represented by separate columns in the cortex, it simply confirms a property of our perceptual system that we mentioned earlier: The cortical representation of a stimulus does not have to resemble the stimulus; it just has to contain information that represents the stimulus. Working together, these columns cover the entire visual field, an effect called tiling. Just as a wall can be covered by adjacent tiles, the visual field is served by adjacent (and often overlapping) location columns. 44. Describe research on brain damaged people that support the idea that the dorsal stream is the "how" pathway. ANSWER: Milner and Goodale (1995) used the method of determining double dissociations to study D.F., a 34-year-old woman who suffered damage to her ventral pathway from carbon monoxide poisoning caused by a gas leak in her home. One result of her brain damage was that D.F. was not able to match the orientation of a card held in her hand to different orientations of a slot. Because D.F. had trouble orienting a card to match the orientation of the slot, it would seem reasonable that she would also have trouble placing the card through the slot, because to do this she would have to turn the card so that it was lined up with the slot. But when D.F. was asked to "mail" the card through the slot, she could do it! Even though D.F. could not turn the card to match the slot's orientation, once she started moving the card toward the slot, she was able to rotate it to match the orientation of the slot. Thus, D.F. performed poorly in the static orientation-matching task but did well as soon as action was involved (Murphy et al., 1996). Milner and Goodale interpreted D.F.'s behavior as showing that there is one mechanism for judging orientation and another for coordinating vision and action. 45. Summarize the Ganel et al. (2008) research on length estimation and grasping tasks, and what the implication of this research is for different processing streams. ANSWER: Tzvi Ganel and coworkers (2008) conducted an experiment designed to demonstrate a separation of perception and action in non-brain-damaged subjects. The stimulus they used, consisting of two lines, creates a visual illusion in which line 2 is longer than line 1, when line 1 is actually longer. Ganel and coworkers presented subjects with two tasks: (1) a length estimation task in which they were asked to indicate how they perceived the lines length by spreading their thumb and index finger; and (2) a grasping task in which they were asked to reach toward the lines and grasp each line by its ends. Sensors on the subjects' fingers measured the separation between the fingers as the subjects grasped the lines. These two tasks were chosen. because they depend on different processing streams. The length estimation task involves the ventral or what stream. The grasping task involves the dorsal or where/how stream. The results of this experiment indicate that in the length estimation task, subjects judged line I (the longer line) as looking shorter than line 2, but in the grasping task, they separated their fingers farther apart for line 1 to match its longer length. Thus, the illusion works for perception (the length estimation task), but not for Name Clas Dat Chapter 04: Cortical Organization action (the grasping task). These results support the idea that perception and action are served by different. mechanisms. An idea about functional organization that originated with observations of patients with brain damage is therefore supported by the performance of subjects without brain damage. 46. Define "modular organization" and specify how the senses are organized into primary receiving areas. ANSWER: The idea that there are pathways that serve different functions leads us to modularity, the idea that specific areas of the cortex are specialized to respond to specific types of stimuli. Areas that are specialized to specific types of stimuli areas are called modules for processing information about these stimuli. For example, there is a great deal of evidence for an area that is rich in neurons that respond to faces. 47. Describe the procedure, results, and implications of the Quiroga et al's (2005) "Halle Berry neuron" study. ANSWER: Quiroga recorded from eight patients with epilepsy who, in preparation for surgery, had electrodes implanted in their hippocampus or other areas in the medial temporal lobe to help localize precisely where their seizures originated. Patients saw a number of different views of specific individuals and objects plus pictures of other things, such as faces, buildings, and animals. Not surprisingly, a number of neurons responded to some of these stimuli. What was surprising, however, was that some neurons responded to a number of different views of just one person or building, or to a number of ways of representing that person or building. For example, one neuron responded to pictures of the actresses Jennifer Aniston and Lisa Kudrow, who both starred in the TV series Friends, but did not respond to faces of other famous people, nonfamous people, landmarks, animals, or other objects. As we noted in Chapter 3, another neuron responded to pictures of actor Steve Carell. Still another neuron responded to photographs of Halle Berry, to drawings of her, to pictures of her dressed as Catwoman from Batman, and also to seeing the words "Halle Berry." The role of these neurons in memory is supported by the way they respond to many different views of the stimulus, different modes of depiction, and even words signifying the stimulus. These neurons are not responding to visual features of the pictures, but to concepts "Jennifer Aniston," "Halle Berry," "Sydney Opera House"-that the stimuli represent. 48. Describe the methods, results, and conclusions of Gauthier et al.'s "Greeble" research. ANSWER: The fact that experience with the environment can shape the nervous system is the basis of the expertise hypothesis, which proposes that our proficiency in perceiving certain things can be explained by changes in the brain caused by long exposure, practice, or training (Bukach et al., 2006; Gauthier et al., 1999). Isabel Gauthier and coworkers (1999) demonstrated an expertise effect by using fMRI to determine the level of activity in the fusiform face area (FFA) in response to faces and to objects called Greebles families of computer-generated "beings" that all have the same basic configuration but differ in the shapes of their parts. Initially, the observers were shown both human faces and Greebles. The results for this part of the experiment indicate that the FFA neurons responded poorly to the Greebles but well to the faces. The participants were then trained in "Greeble recognition" for 7 hours over a 4-day period. After the training sessions, participants had become "Greeble experts," as indicated by their ability to rapidly identify many different Greebles by the names they had learned during the training. Becoming a Greeble expert affected the neural response in the participants' FFA and after the training, the FFA neurons responded about as well to Greebles as to faces, 49. Describe how MRIs and fMRIs are performed and explain why these methods are so important to psychological research. ANSWER: In the 1980s, a technique called magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) made it possible to create images of structures within the brain. Since then, MRI has become a standard technique for detecting tumors and other brain abnormalities. While this technique is excellent for revealing brain structures, it doesn't indicate neural activity. Another technique, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), has enabled researchers to Name Chapter 04: Cortical Organization Clas Dat determine how various types of cognition activate different areas of the brain. Functional magnetic resonance imaging takes advantage of the fact that blood flow increases in areas of the brain that are activated. The measurement of blood flow is based on the fact that hemoglobin, which carries oxygen in the blood, contains a ferrous (iron) molecule and therefore has magnetic properties. If a magnetic field is presented to the brain, the hemoglobin molecules line up, like tiny magnets. Areas of the brain that are more active consume more oxygen, so the hemoglobin molecules lose some of the oxygen they are transporting, which makes them more magnetic and increases their response to the magnetic field. The fMRI apparatus determines the relative activity of various areas of the brain by detecting changes in the magnetic response of the hemoglobin. 50. Identify the five areas of the brain associated with processing of faces, explaining what is processed in each area. ANSWER: Occipital cortex (OC): Initial processing Fusiform face area (FFA): Basic face processing Amygdala (A): Emotional reactions (face expressions and observer's emotional reactions); Familiarity (familiar faces cause more activation in amygdala and other areas associated with emotions) Frontal lobe (FL): Evaluation of attractiveness liveness Superior temporal sulcus (STS): Gaze direction; mouth movements; general face movements