Agricultural Science Reading And Comprehension Set

I feel like I’m almost re- living my TEAS reading Agricultural nightmare. (But, you will not see Science Reading and Comprehension Set 1 Travis Park, Cornell University mention of this exact same creature on the Environmental Science. Extinction of the Ivory-Billed Woodpecker. 1 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 exam) The Ivory-billed Woodpecker (IBW) became extinct in the mid-1940s. Hunters in old-growth forests no longer hear the unique “kent-kent” call. Hikers no longer hear the double-knock of the IBW searching for beetle larvae. The last IBW was photographed in the old-growth swamps of the southern United States in 1935. Today, because of a potential rediscovery in Arkansas, major efforts are underway to find the IBW. Once called the “Lord God Bird,” the IBW is the largest woodpecker north of Mexico. It is the third largest woodpecker in the world. It stands nearly 20 inches tall. In flight, the IBW’s wings span 30 inches. Large patches of white feathers on the trailing edge of the wing and the ivory colored bill define the male IBW. The IBW’s range once included the American South from eastern Texas to North Carolina, and from southern Illinois throughout Florida. Like many woodpeckers, the IBW’s main food source is insects. Beetle larvae is its favorite food. Beetle larvae are scavenged from recently dead but still standing trees. To find the beetle larva, the woodpecker pecks holes in trees and strips these recently dead trees of their bark. Typically, the IBW prefers swampy bottomland hardwood forests. These old-growth forests provided a smorgasbord of insects from dead, but still standing trees. Several factors contributed to the extinction of the IBW by the mid-1940s. Habitat destruction is believed to be the major factor in the extinction of the IBW. Large paper and lumber companies bought huge tracts of land within the IBW’s range. Logging destroyed the habitat by removing the nesting trees and dead standing trees that were the sources of insects for the IBW. The last remaining known habitat of the IBW was the Singer Tract in Louisiana. The National Audubon Society’s efforts to stop logging of the land only accelerated the Chicago Mill and Lumber Company’s cutting and destruction of the old-growth forest in this area. Today, less than 20% of these old-growth forests remain in the South, especially in the Mississippi Delta region. The IBW as not able to adapt to the habitat destruction like other animals. IBW could not simply move to new habitat. The oldgrowth forests were uniquely qualified to support the IBW. The dead, standing trees provided nesting places and beetle larvae for food. 7 These passages are reflective of the reading questions which require inference, logical conclusions, etc. They are not testing main ideas, summarizing, etc. I highly suggest doing the first passage. I’ve also written my comments on some of the others. I don’t have time to look at all of them. 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 A second contributing factor to the IBW’s extinction was the drainage, damming, and altering of the courses of swamps and rivers within its range. Draining and damming swamps provided vast agricultural fields after the trees were cleared. The remaining tracts of old-growth forests suffered from the lack of water to nourish and regenerate the trees. Those forests that do remain are located in isolated pockets surrounded by agricultural lands. By creating isolated islands of old-growth forests, the wildlife that previously inhabited the area either died out or migrated to other habitat. As the areas of swampy old-growth forests diminished, so did the forests’ ability to support larger animals such as wolves, panthers, and IBW. In smaller patches of forests, with the ebb and flow of water altered, water quality becomes an issue. Sediments, fertilizers, and chemicals from surrounding agricultural lands, lawns, and roads wash into the remaining swamps and creeks. This alters the water quality and impacts life in the water. Gone are the riparian buffers with which to filter these pollutants out of the water. Bird collecting also contributed to the IBW extinction. In the late 1800s bird collecting was one of the main fads of the day. As the IBW numbers began to decline in the late 1800s, bird collectors sought to add the rare bird to their collections. Thus, collectors and preservationists captured and stuffed IBW in large numbers to add to their personal collections. In February 2004, Gene Sparling observed an IBW while kayaking in the Cache River National Wildlife Refuge in Arkansas. Since 2004, several other sightings have been documented by ornithologists, those who study birds. The Nature Conservancy, the Arkansas Game and Fish Commission, the Cornell Lab of Ornithology, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service are conducting ongoing searches. However, no actual photographs or sound recordings have proven conclusive. Thus, large disagreement exists as to whether or not the IBW has been rediscovered. Oftentimes, ensuring that one species is not confused for another requires careful documentation and analysis. The IBW closely resembles the more common and smaller Pileated Woodpecker (PW). The PW inhabits much of the same territory as the IBW. The PW peals the bark from trees in search of beetle larvae. One difference between the two woodpeckers is that the PW has a black trailing wing edge. Skeptics of the recent sightings have indicated that the rediscovered IBW is really a PW. To date, no further conclusive sightings, photographs, or recordings have been found. 8 Please select the best answer from the choices provided for each question. 1. The passage asserts that the major cause of the ivory-billed woodpecker extinction was a. hunting IBW for bird collections. b. DDT and other petrochemicals. c. habitat destruction. d. global warming that caused the loss of the IBW’s range. 2. What is a plausible explanation for why the IBW was called “Lord God Bird”? a. This name is a translation from the bird’s Native American name. b. Because of its large size and unique markings. c. IBW has seemed to come back to life after being thought to be dead. d. “Lord God” sounds like the call of the IBW. 3. A difference between the IBW and the PW is I. IBW has a white trailing wing edge and the PW has a black trailing wing edge. II. PW has a silvery grey bill and the IBW has a white colored bill. III. PW is much larger than the IBW. a. I only. b. II and III only. c. I and II only. d. I, II, and III. 4. If loggers did not cut dead trees for lumber, then how was the IBW’s habitat destroyed? a. Standing dead trees were removed to harvest the more valuable lumber trees. b. Loggers cut roads through the swamp to harvest trees. c. The IBW were pests that attacked loggers harvesting trees. d. Logging caused the water to become filled with sediment. 5. The passage states that the Audubon Society’s efforts to stop logging actually sped the Chicago Mill and Lumber Company’s cutting efforts. What is a possible explanation for this? a. The Audubon Society wanted to hunt the final IBW to add to their bird collections. b. The lumber company wanted to cut the trees before the courts could stop the timber harvest. c. The Audubon Society did not care about the IBW, so it did not allocate much money to stop the timber harvest. d. The lumber company was paid by the Audubon Society to cut only living trees, not the standing dead trees where the IBW lived. 6. From the passage, it can be deduced that the size of the PW is a. a wingspan of less than 40 inches. b. less than 40 inches tall. c. less than 20 inches tall. d. less than 30 inches tall. 9 7. The loss of riparian buffers contributed to… a. the death of live trees where the IBW fed on beetle larvae. b. additional agricultural lands to provide corn and rice as food for IBW. c. higher water quality in old-growth forests. d. poorer water quality in old-growth forests. 8. The passage asserts that bird collecting contributed to the IBW extinction. Why? a. Birds were trapped and moved to museums and zoos. b. Bird collectors wanted to move the birds to better habitat. c. The IBW were hunted and killed to the point of extinction. d. Bird collectors took pictures of the IBW, which introduced lead poisoning into its habitat. 9. Why is the rediscovery of the IBW controversial? a. Some sense that the US government has been lying to people about the IBW extinction. b. The rediscovery happened in areas outside of the traditional IBW range. c. Paintings and stories about recent sightings of the IBW seem more likely to be the PW. d. Pictures and recordings in the past few years have been inconclusive. 10. For conservationists, what is one plausible lesson to learn from the IBW? a. Habitat destruction may be an indirect route to extinction for some species. b. DDT and other petrochemicals can cause the extinction of bird species. c. Rivers and swamps may be drained as long as standing dead trees remain for bird nesting and feeding. d. IBW had markings that were too bright and too white, thus contributing to its being hunted for food by other animals. 10 Environmental Science. Extinction of the Ivory-Billed Woodpecker. Answer key. # 1 Answer: letter C 2 B Because of its large size and unique markings. 3 A I only. IBW has a white trailing wing edge and the PW has a black trailing wing edge. Literal 4 A Dead trees were removed to harvest the more valuable lumber trees. Extension 5 B The lumber company wanted to cut the trees before the courts could stop the timber harvest. Extension 6 C Less than 20 inches tall. Inferential 7 D Poorer water quality in old-growth forests. Literal 8 C The IBW were hunted and killed to the point of extinction. Literal 9 D Pictures and recordings in the past few years have been inconclusive. Inferential 10 A Habitat destruction may be an indirect route to extinction for some species. Extension Answer: description Habitat destruction. Type of Question Literal Inferential 11 Good Practice passage. On the level of the Agricultural Science Reading and Comprehension Set 2 Travis Park, Cornell University harder TEAS passages. Animal Science. Animal Cloning. 1 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Animal cloning is a form of biotechnology that scientists call somatic cell nuclear transfer. Somatic cells are simply body cells. The nucleus is the central “brain” of a cell containing all of the genetic information in the cell. Thus, somatic cell nuclear transfer simply means to take the “brain” of one body cell and move it into another body cell to create a new animal. A clone is an individual that is genetically identical with another individual. Plants commonly produce clones during asexual reproduction in the forms of tubers, plantlets, rhizomes, and stolons. Single-celled organisms commonly reproduce via clones by division. However, cloning is not common among higher-order animals, such as humans, swine, or cattle. Cloning gained notoriety in the mid-1990s. The procedure was first used to create Dolly, a cloned sheep in England in 1996. This cloning procedure sparked much debate about science, ethics, and medicine. Since the time that Dolly was cloned, many different animals have been cloned, including cows, pigs, goats, and horses. There are two main procedures for cloning animals. These are called embryo splitting and nucleus transplantation. Both processes involve the female egg or embryo cells. During embryo splitting, an embryo of one organism is physically split into two separate individuals. Both of these individuals are genetically identical to one another. During nucleus transplantation, the nucleus of the recipient individual’s ovum or egg cell is removed. It is replaced with genetic material from another individual. Why have artificial cloning techniques been developed? One potential use for cloned or transgenic animals is in the medical field as drug producers. In this system, animals produce human proteins using biological processes already in place. For example, a cow that produces human blood factors or insulin in milk is one potential use. Using animals, large amounts of the human protein could be produced. This provides the potential to help more people than could be helped through conventional means. Potential disadvantages are difficult to foresee, but can include possible transmission of diseases. Another potential use for animal cloning is for the use of animal models for human diseases. Animal models are currently used by scientists to study how biochemical and physiological processes are affected by experimental drugs and therapies. These effects are then 12 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 used to determine how humans might react to the new drug or therapy. However, animal models and humans differ in their anatomy and physiology. These differences mean that humans and animal models are often incompatible, resulting in inaccurate effects. Cloning can solve the incompatibility problem by introducing the specific human genes that are being studied into the animal model. For example, a disease that is often not observed in mice can be introduced into mice that have been cloned with human genes. Scientists can then test potential drug treatments for the human disease. This use would reduce the need to subject humans to such experimentation. Animal cloning could also potentially lead to the production of replacement human tissues outside of the human body. These tissues would be genetically identical to the human recipient. This would minimize the rejection that often occurs with transplanted organs and tissues. This cloning process would use the nucleus transfer technique in order to place human embryo cells into an animal embryo. This is an extremely controversial subject because of ethics concerning human embryo use. There are several issues that surround animal cloning. One major concern is regarding animal welfare. Because of the low rate of success in animal cloning, there is a potential for a tremendous amount of loss of animal life. Also, questions exist about quality of life that the cloned animal endures. The few cloned animals that do exist have a high incidence of severe health problems. They have respiratory ailments, weakened immune systems, and deformities. Some people express concern over the safety of the human food supply if cloned animals are to be eaten. Environmental concerns include the potential disastrous effects of entire animal populations with similar genetic makeup. In plants, monocultures of genetically identical plants can be devastated by a single disease or pest that the clones are not well adapted against. The same effect can potentially be seen in animal populations that all contain the same genetic traits. Ethical issues are controversial concerning whether cloned pets and food will be accepted by the general public. Still, animal cloning holds the promise of new medical procedures to save human lives. Of course, like all medical and scientific advancements, concern must be observed and much testing must be done before full implementation. Cloning opens doors to many opportunities in agriculture and science. 13 Please select the best answer from the choices provided for each question. 1. A plant that reproduces via seeds… a. undergoes the cloning process. b. uses asexual reproduction. c. produces offspring that are not genetically identical to the parent. d. produces offspring that are genetically identical to the parent. 2. What might be another name for the nucleus of the cell? a. The heart. b. The brain. c. The lungs. d. The feet. 3. Why are people concerned about the safety of eating cloned animals? I. They are unsure about the safety of the genetics of the cloned animal. II. They believe that the animal experienced a lower quality of life than other food animals. III. They are unsure of the science and technology involved in animal cloning. a. I only. b. II and III only. c. I and II only. d. I, II, and III. 4. What are the two main procedures for cloning animals? a. Division and embryo splitting. b. Division and nucleus transplantation. c. Nucleus transplantation and embryo splitting. d. Embryo splitting and asexual reproduction. 5. What are benefits of animal cloning? a. More food, new species of animals, and regeneration of extinct animal species. b. Medical models, replacement human tissues, and drug testing. c. Replacement human tissues and regeneration of extinct animal species. d. Medical models, replacement tissues, and increased food production. 6. According to the author, what are reasons to support further experimentation with animal cloning? a. Animal cloning may offer new cures for human diseases. b. Cloning is the latest scientific technology. c. Cloning provides careers for agriculturalists and scientists. d. Animal cloning offers possibilities for providing more food to feed the world’s hungry. 7. According to the author, why should we be cautious about cloning animals? a. Cloned animals experience health problems, and scientists do not know why they experience these problems. b. Cloning may subject animals to a lower quality of life. c. Cloning may contribute to the development of monocultures in animals. d. None of the above. e. All of the above. 14 8. According to science fiction and movies such as Jurassic Park, scientists can use genetic information from extinct species to create new, living individuals. Why is this not currently possible according to this passage? a. There are no living somatic cells in which to insert living nuclei. b. The nuclei of extinct species are no longer living and thus not viable. c. The DNA of extinct species may have decayed to the point that it is no longer usable. d. Living embryos of extinct species are difficult to find and use in science laboratories. 9. What is the name given to an individual that is genetically identical to another? a. Somatic. b. Clone. c. Transgenic. d. Embryo. 10. Animal cloning is an example of… a. cooperation among scientists and agriculturalists. b. career possibilities in agriculture. c. controversial science in agriculture. d. All of the above. 15 Animal Science. Animal Cloning. Answer key. # 1 Answer: letter C 2 B The brain. 3 D I, II, and III. They are unsure about the genetics of the cloned animal. They believe that the animal experienced a lower quality of life than other food animals. They are unsure of the science and technology involved in animal cloning. 4 C Nucleus transplantation and embryo splitting. Literal 5 B Medical models, replacement human tissues, and drug testing. Literal 6 A Animal cloning may offer new cures for human diseases. Literal 7 E All of the above. Cloned animals experience health problems, and scientists do not know why they experience these problems. Cloning may subject animals to a lower quality of life. Cloning may contribute to the development of monocultures in animals. Inferential 8 A There are no living somatic cells in which to insert living nuclei. Extension 9 B Clone. 10 D All of the above. …cooperation among scientists and agriculturalists, career possibilities in agriculture, and controversial science in agriculture. Answer: description produces offspring that are not genetically identical to the parent. Type of Question Inferential Literal Inferential Literal Extension 16 Good passage, but a bit longer and very boring Agricultural Science Reading and Comprehension Set 3 Travis Park, Cornell University Plant Science. Plant Tissue Cultures. 1 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Plant tissue culture is the growth of plant cells or other tissues detached from the organism. It is also called micropropagation. The tissues or cells are grown on an artificial growing surface, or media, in an aseptic environment using filtered air, free of the presence of microbial pathogens. Tissue culture is used widely in the horticulture industry in order to produce a large number of identical individuals quickly. An example of this is with the many cultivated varieties of plants used in ornamental garden beds. Popular species of orchids used as houseplants are often germinated in sterile conditions using tissue cultures because their seeds are extremely small and fragile. Tissue culture is also used in research that involves experiments on seeds. Scientists easily observe which plants possess desired or unusual characteristics. This is common in transgenic plant research. Transgenic plant research is research involving genes from one plant specifically inserted into another different plant. Tissue culture helps scientists quickly see which plants have successfully expressed these translocated traits. It is also useful to observe plants that have been exposed to unusual environmental conditions, like radiation or a chemical treatment. Tissue culture can be used to help grow plants that might not otherwise reproduce and grow. For example, embryo rescue is a tissue culture technique where a scientist breaks into the ovary of a plant and removes the developing embryo from a seed before the plant might otherwise abort it. This technique is commonly used with breeding new cultivars of grapes, maize, and chrysanthemum. Scientists also use tissue culture to artificially germinate grains of pollen from the anthers of plants. This process is called androgenesis, and produces plants with half of the number of chromosomes that plants of that species would normally have. Plants that contain half of the number of chromosomes they would naturally have are called haploids. Scientists use this technique because generating haploid plants can make the expression of recessive character traits more visible in a shorter amount of time when compared to using hybrid plants. It is used to observe different traits like cold tolerance easily in forages and agronomic crops. Tissue culture is also commonly used to remove viruses from 17 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 infected plants. This is a common technique used for removing viruses from infected orchid and rose species. To remove a virus from a plant using tissue culture, a very small growing shoot, called a meristem, is removed from the infected plant. Because viruses are most commonly found on older tissues, this younger meristem tends not to be infected. The meristem tissue is then grown to regenerate the adult plant. Scientists also use tissue culture to produce novel hybrid plants by fusing two plant cells together without intact cell walls in a process called protoplast fusion. There are two main methods for removing plant cell walls. One process involves the cell walls being ruptured mechanically and removed by hand. The other, more common process is to use chemical enzymes to digest the cell walls. Once the cell walls are removed, the protoplasts are then fused together, and then grow into complete plants. This process is used with improving African Violet species as well as some tree species, although it is of limited success. The medium on which cultured plant tissues and cells are grown contains plant hormones, vitamins, and a nutrient source such as ammonium salts or amino acids. Auxin results in root growth, while cytokinin results in shoot growth. The amounts of these two hormones can be varied in order to cause different parts of the plant to grow. Unlike adult animal cells, adult plant cells are totipotent, meaning that one single cell can be used to produce all differentiated cells in the plant. There are four common stages in tissue culture. Stage I is also called in vitro propagation and establishes the initial aseptic culture of the plant. It can be done by taking small sections of growing tips of adult plants, cutting away differentiated leaves from the meristem, and washing the tip with a disinfectant. The disinfectant cleans any microorganisms from the surface of the plant. Stage II is where plant tissues and organs begin to proliferate and increase in number. Stage III is characterized by rooting the shoot cuttings in order to prepare them for the eventual transfer to soil. In this stage, plants are hardened off. This means that they are gradually accustomed to the environment they will encounter once they are transferred to the soil. Stage IV is when the plants are transferred into the soil. 18 Please select the best answer from the choices provided for each question. 1. What is the artificial surface upon which plants grow called? a. Soil. b. Dirt. c. Press. d. Media. 2. Why is tissue culture used in the horticulture industry? a. To quickly produce many offspring that are genetically identical to their parents. b. To produce plants that have double the normal amount of flowers. c. To develop new species of plants. d. To quickly produce many offspring that are hybrids of their parents. 3. Why would a horticulturalist want to use tissue culture with a prize plant specimen? a. Tissue culture allows the horticulturalist to reproduce the exact genetics of the prize plant. b. Tissue culture allows the horticulturalist to improve the plant’s genetics through sexual reproduction. c. The horticulturalist may want to breed two prize plants to create a new hybrid. d. None of the above. 4. With which of the following statements would the author of this passage agree? I. Tissue culture uses science to remedy plant diseases and shortcomings, which would not be possible with natural reproductive means. II. Tissue culture uses science to create new varieties of plants to appeal to consumers. III. Tissue culture uses science to create plants that are more beneficial to humans. a. I only. b. II and III only. c. I and II only. d. I, II, and III. 5. Why are aseptic conditions important when conducting tissue cultures? a. To produce as many new plants as possible. b. To reduce microorganisms who feed on plant seeds. c. To reduce disease contamination during fragile plant tissue transfers. d. To create new plant species. 6. During the stages of plant tissue cultures, the best place to perform these processes would be which of the following? a. A laboratory. b. A greenhouse. c. A nursery. d. A classroom. 19 7. What is the process of producing plants with half of the number of chromosomes contained in normal plants of that species called? a. Tissue culture. b. Androgenesis. c. Haploidosis. d. Nuclear transfer. 8. What do plant growth media contain? a. Soil, water, and pore space. b. Plant hormones, vitamins, and minerals. c. Iron, selenium, and calcium. d. Plant hormones, vitamins, and a nutrient source. 9. With which of the following statements would the author of this passage agree? a. Tissue culture is inexpensive. b. Tissue culture is labor intensive. c. Tissue culture is easy. d. Tissue culture is dangerous. 10. Which tissue culture processes may be used to grow plants that would not normally reproduce and grow? a. Androgenesis and natural selection. b. Embryo rescue and haploid. c. Embryo rescue and androgenesis. d. Haploid and meristem. 20 Plant Science. Plant Tissue Cultures. Answer key. # 1 Answer: letter D 2 Answer: description Type of Question Literal A To quickly produce many offspring that are genetically identical to their parents. Literal 3 A Tissue culture allows the horticulturalist to reproduce the exact genetics of the prize plant. Extension 4 B II and III only. Tissue culture uses science to remedy plant diseases and shortcomings, which would not be possible with natural reproductive means. Tissue culture uses science to create new varieties of plants to appeal to consumers. Inferential 5 C To reduce disease contamination during fragile plant tissue transfers. Inferential 6 A A laboratory. Extension 7 B Androgenesis. Literal 8 D Plant hormones, vitamins, and a nutrient source. Literal 9 B Tissue culture is labor intensive. Inferential 10 C Embryo rescue and androgenesis. Literal Media. 21 Good Passage. I would do this passage. Agricultural Science Reading and Comprehension Set 4 Travis Park, Cornell University Agricultural Business Management. Budgeting in Agricultural Operations. 1 5 10 15 20 25 A budget is a plan for how expenses and income are managed over a period of time. Budgeting is an important, but sometimes overlooked, aspect in managing agricultural accounts and operations. When budgets are properly prepared, alternatives can be more effectively compared, resources can be allocated, and better decisions can be made. As with other aspects of agricultural business management, accurate recordkeeping is important. Budgets help define long-term business goals and eliminate wasteful spending habits. The budgeting process establishes goals for how money will be spent and earned over a period of time. A total budget estimates total income and expenditures for the fiscal or calendar year. It combines all activities that either earn or spend money. A calendar year runs from January 1 to December 31 on a given year. A fiscal year follows a different calendar period, such as from July 1 through June 30 of the following calendar year. Businesses follow a fiscal year to aid in budgeting, because factors of production or services rendered may not closely align with the calendar. A partial budget compares the effects of alternative solutions to a single decision. Often these budgets consider only the variable expenses and income related to the decision. The fixed expenses and income are constant regardless of the two options. An example of such a decision can be deciding between purchasing a push lawnmower and a riding lawnmower in a lawn maintenance business. In making the decision, variable expenses would include the initial investment in the lawn mower, fuel, and labor. Variable income could include the income from the estimated number of lawns mowed in a week with the push lawnmower versus the number mowed with a riding lawnmower. 30 A unit budget estimates income and expenditures for the fiscal or calendar year at the unit level, such as per square foot of greenhouse bench space for example. This is a way for the managers of the business to know exactly how much a unit will produce, as well as how much the unit will cost to produce products. 35 A cash flow budget estimates income and expenses that are allocated for short period of time. The period of time may be as short as a month, a quarter, or a period that is appropriate for the business. 22 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 This budget is useful in determining when the income is sufficient to cover debts and expenses. A cash flow budget also informs the owner as to when outside financing may be necessary. For example, during June and July, many farmers lack income from farming operations, yet they incur expenses for fertilizer, labor, and pesticides. Budgeting ensures that sufficient funds are available to provide for these expenses during times of low income. Before a business begins, owners must determine the initial, or start-up, costs the business will require. Start-up costs are expenses that the company necessary in order to begin operations. These can include tangible expenses. Tangible expenses are those expenses which can be quantified, or measured. Tangible expenses include equipment, labor, insurance, rent, and inventory needed for production. Initial costs may also include services, such as a consultant or labor contracted through another individual or company. Expenses can be either fixed or variable. Fixed expenses are those expenses which remain at a constant level, regardless of how many units are produced. For example, a fixed expense might be cash rent for an 80-acre field. The rent does not change if the corn yield is 210 bushels or if it is 130 bushels. These expenses may include taxes, rent, insurance, utilities, and education. Variable expenses are those expenses which vary depending upon the units produced. An example of a variable expense is feed costs. The feed costs required to raise one thousand feeder pigs is significantly less than the feed costs required to feed ten thousand feeder pigs. Thus, the feed costs depend upon the number of units, pigs, produced. Variable expenses may include feed, uniforms, and veterinary medical costs. Budgeting begins with estimating the kinds of items that require financial expenditures. Using previous records, efficiency tables, estimated costs of inputs, and price quotes from suppliers, the expenses of production amounts can be estimated. Similarly, the amount of income from products or services can be estimated from previous records, efficiency tables, and estimates in income from each product produced. Estimated expenses are subtracted from estimated income. Budgeting is difficult when the costs of production and/or the forecasted income are variable and volatile. For example, when fuel prices rise dramatically, budgets are often not aligned with actual expenses. Or, when the demand for agricultural products and services exceeds the supply, then the price per bushel of corn or other 23 80 commodity increases. In these instances, the budget may be reevaluated based upon changing market conditions. As always, the budget developed at the beginning of the year or production cycle must be compared to the actual statement of cash flows, which reflects the actual expenses and income of the operation. Please select the best answer from the choices provided for each question. 1. Why are budgets important for agricultural business owners? a. So that the business manager can measure where scares financial resources are spent. b. To determine which enterprises are most profitable, to determine how much money to spend on new equipment, and to track employee productivity. c. To develop a statement of cash flows, an inventory, and a financial balance sheet at the end of each year. d. So that alternatives can be more effectively compared, resources can be allocated, and better decisions can be made. 2. If a swine producer wants to know whether s/he can profit more from raising feeder pigs or from raising replacement gilts, which of the following budgets should s/he develop? a. Unit budget. b. Cash flow budget. c. Partial budget. d. Total budget. 3. When should does a business owner construct an overall budget? a. At the beginning of the year. b. In the middle of the year. c. At the end of the year. d. Once per decade. 4. Before developing a total budget, which of the following pieces of information are necessary? a. Previous records. b. Price quotes. c. Detailed financial plans about the enterprise. d. All of the above. e. None of the above. 5. Why is budgeting difficult when expenses or incomes are volatile? a. Because budgeting occurs months or even a year before income or expenses, those expenses and income that fluctuate are difficult to predict. b. Sometimes expenses and income can blow up as a result of extreme volatility. c. Volatile expenses and incomes may change suddenly, causing cash flows to exceed the budget. d. None of the above. 6. In order to create an accurate budget, what basic management task must be conducted? a. Profiting from sales. b. Hiring the right employees. c. Keeping accurate records. d. Working with an honest accountant. 24 7. Which of the following would be categorized as a variable expense for a beef enterprise? a. Insurance premiums. b. Feed expenses. c. Mortgage payments on the farm. d. None of the above. 8. Which of the following enterprises might consider following a fiscal year that coincides with the production year? I. Christmas tree farm with a fiscal year of April 1 through March 31. II. U-pick strawberry farm with a fiscal year of July 1 through June 30. III. Beef production with a fiscal year of January 1 through December 31. a. I only. b. II only. c. I and III only. d. I, II, and III. 9. With which of the following statements would the author of this passage agree? a. Budgeting is an optional process when considering which of two financial decisions to make. b. Budgets are useful for only part of the fiscal year. c. Budgets ensure that the farm, business, or organization will make a profit. d. Budgeting is a critical process relating to profit and business planning. 10. If a farmer wants to maximize profit per acre, which of the following budgets would be appropriate? a. Unit budget. b. Cash flow budget. c. Partial budget. d. Total budget. 25 Agricultural Business Management. Budgeting in Agricultural Operations. Answer key. # 1 Answer: letter D 2 C Partial budget. 3 A At the beginning of the year. 4 D All of the above. Previous records, price quotes, and detailed financial plans about the enterprise. Inferential 5 A Because budgeting occurs months or even a year before income or expenses, those expenses and income that fluctuate are difficult to predict. Inferential 6 C Keeping accurate records 7 B Feed expenses. Extension 8 B II only. U-pick strawberry farm with a fiscal year of July 1 through June 30. Extension 9 D Budgeting is a critical process relating to profit and business planning. Inferential 10 A Unit budget. Extension Answer: description So that alternatives can be more effectively compared, resources can be allocated, and better decisions can be made. Type of Question Literal Extension Literal Literal 26 Agricultural Science Reading and Comprehension Set 5 Travis Park, Cornell University Horticulture. Hydroponic Plant Production. 1 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Plants normally grow in soil. Sometimes soil is not available or is not the first choice for a growing medium. Hydroponics is a means of growing plants using a liquid nutrient solution instead of soil. The area of hydroponics also includes aeroponics, which growers mist the plants’ roots with a nutrient solution. The field of hydroponics also includes aquaponics, where both plants and fish are raised in the same space. Although only recently gaining popularity, people have been using hydroponics to grow plants for hundreds of years by many different civilizations. For example, the Aztec civilization that colonized areas of what is now Mexico used floating rafts on which to grow food crops. The ancient Babylon civilization had developed a system of “hanging gardens”. Egyptian hieroglyphic records include descriptions of growing plants in water. So, the concept of hydroponics is not new. Modern hydroponics systems can be as simple as a homeowner using an inexpensive manual system indoors to grow vegetables and herbs. Or it can be as complicated and expensive as a commercial hot house business using automatic systems to grow vegetables for a larger market. The basic ideas behind growing plants without the use of soil are the same, regardless of size or level of system sophistication. One of the factors driving the development of modern hydroponics systems is the potential use of these systems to grow fresh produce in areas of the world that are not otherwise arable. Some parts of the world lack sufficient precipitation or soil fertility to grow crops outdoors. Growing plants using liquid nutrient solutions and sand or glass wool as a support medium are common in urban areas. Here undeveloped land for crops is scarce. Hydroponics has even been tested by NASA for the potential use of growing plants in space. There are several advantages to using hydroponics to grow food crops. For example, higher yields can be produced. The devastating effects of soil-borne pathogens and competitive weedy plants can be eliminated. Fewer amounts of water and fertilizers are also used in hydroponics. Some people also say that hydroponic vegetables are of higher quality and appear more uniform. 27 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 Several disadvantages of hydroponic systems do exist. Hydroponic systems are costly during setup and maintenance costs. Diseases move quickly through shared nutrient solutions and can infect many plants quickly. Of course, conventional growing systems in fields use the sun’s solar energy. Hydroponic use petroleum-based energy, thus the energy costs are high. All plants require light, water, oxygen, nutrients, and carbon dioxide in order to grow and reproduce successfully. When plants are grown naturally in soil, water percolates up through the soil from groundwater sources to the plants’ roots by a process known as capillary action. Water also leaches down through the soil by infiltration during precipitation. Nutrients, oxygen, and carbon dioxide must all be dissolved in a water solution in order to be used by the plants. This is true whether plants are grown in the soil or hydroponically. Hydroponics is similar to growing plants in soil because liquid nutrients are added to the root zone. Here the nutrients can be absorbed by the roots. Aeration supplies oxygen and carbon dioxide to the roots mechanically using an electric aerator. The main difference between hydroponics and growing plants in soil is that soil provides plants with a place to anchor the roots. Roots anchored in the soil help the plant withstand environmental conditions such as wind and precipitation. In hydroponics, roots either grow freely in the liquid nutrient solution or are anchored to a nutrient-free medium source. Inert media sources can include coir (coconut fiber), gravel, and mineral wool (artificially spun metal or mineral fibers). Gardeners may choose from several different hydroponic systems. The most common system in North America is the ebb and flow system. It uses a tray filled with inert media that is flooded and drained four to five times a day. This system works well for plants that have a long life span and is used for growing plants in the bedding plant industry. Rafting is a simple system where a large volume of nutrient solution is circulated below plants that are grown in floating Styrofoam rafts. This system is commonly used for commercial lettuce production. The wick system consists of plants growing in a fine expanded clay medium in pots. A wick is used in the bottom of the pot to bring water to the plants roots from a reservoir, which is filled as needed. 28 80 The nutrient film technique is one of the newest systems to be developed. It uses a nutrient system that flows using gravity to move water down the roots of a plant using a series of tubes. The nutrient solution is collected in a reservoir to be used again. Only a very thin film of solution is ever in contact with the plants’ roots. This allows the roots to absorb oxygen as well. Please select the best answer from the choices provided for each question. 1. What is the term used to describe when plants are grown simultaneously with aquatic animals, such as fish and shrimp? a. Aeroponics. b. Aquaponics. c. Hydroponics. d. Plantiponics. 2. How can oxygen be added to the water used for hydroponics? a. With a bubbler similar to those used in aquariums. b. With falling water, as in the return to a main holding tank. c. With injections of air into the system. d. All of the above. e. None of the above. 3. Hydroponic systems may take several different forms. Which of the following term is correctly matched with its respective system? I. Rafting places plants within Styrofoam squares floating in water. II. Wick systems grow plants on large rope wicks that contain nutrient solutions. III. Ebb and flow systems fill and drain nutrient solutions from plant roots several times a day. a. I only. b. II and III only. c. I and III only. d. I, II, and III. 4. Why has interest in hydroponics increased? a. Hydroponic systems are energyefficient. b. Hydroponics offers the ability to raise food where the soil and/or climate are unsuitable. c. Hydroponics can reduce greenhouse gases, since plants consumer carbon dioxide in the greenhouse. d. Hydroponics is relatively easy to understand, so many people can use these systems to raise food. 5. As a hydroponic producer, what could devastate your entire crop within the system? a. Hard water. b. Low humidity. c. Disease. d. Rock wool. 6. Because hydroponically grown plants lack soil in which to anchor roots, which of the following is true? a. Plants must be grown indoors away from extreme winds. b. Root diseases are less common in hydroponic systems. c. Hydroponic systems cannot support tall plants. d. None of the above. 29 7. Hydroponics is not new. Which civilizations used hydroponic systems to raise crops? a. Apaches and English. b. Incas and Mayas. c. Eskimos and Australians. d. Aztecs and Egyptians. 9. In all hydroponic systems, what atmospheric gas must be available to plant roots? a. Argon. b. Carbon dioxide. c. Nitrogen. d. Oxygen. 8. With the state of our global environment, what is one concern with hydroponic systems? a. It contributes to greenhouse gas accumulation in the atmosphere. b. It requires Styrofoam. c. It uses a lot of water. d. It uses a lot of fertilizer. 10. Which of the following hydroponic systems would be most effective with limited water supplies? a. Ebb and flow. b. Rafting. c. Nutrient film. d. Wick. 30 Horticulture. Hydroponic Plant Production. Answer key. # 1 Answer: letter B 2 Answer: description Type of Question Literal D All of the above. With a bubbler similar to those used in aquariums. With falling water, as in the return to a main holding tank. With injections of air into the system. Extension 3 C I and III only. Rafting places plants within Styrofoam squares floating in water. Ebb and flow systems fill and drain nutrient solutions from plant roots several times a day. Literal 4 B Hydroponics offers the ability to raise food where the soil and/or climate are unsuitable. Literal 5 C Disease. Inferential 6 A Plants must be grown indoors away from extreme winds. Extension 7 D Aztecs and Egyptians. Literal 8 C It uses a lot of water. Inferential 9 D Oxygen. 10 C Nutrient film. Aquaponics. Literal Inferential 31 Agricultural Science Reading and Comprehension Set 6 Travis Park, Cornell University Agricultural Mechanics & Technology. MIG Welding. 1 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Welding is the process of fusing two metals together is a process. It has been around for thousands of years, yet the specific methods that are used have been perfected in the past century. Welding is anything but ordinary. Today’s welders are highly skilled professionals who essentially build the world. Many welders have mastered the several techniques involved in fusing metals together. In the most basic sense, welding involves a source of electricity, an electrode, and two pieces of metal. The electricity source basically short circuits, which provides a high temperature open flame that melts parts of the two pieces of metal. The open flame melts the electrode and neighboring areas of the base metals. The electrode directs the energy and provides molten metal to fill any cracks between the two pieces of metal. The resulting weld is called a bead. One such welding technique is the Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding (also called Gas Metal Arc Welding or wire-feed welding). It is an automatic or semi-automatic arc welding process that uses a wire electrode made of aluminum alloy. The wire electrode is fed through a nozzle toward the joint between the two pieces of metal. An inert shielding gas protects the weld area from atmospheric gas contamination and oxidation during cooling. This shielding gas is used because it does not react with oxygen in the atmosphere in a process called oxidation. Oxidation is undesirable because it reduces the quality and durability of the finished weld. If only carbon dioxide is used as an inert gas, the welded bead’s profile might not be as flat. Also, more spatter may happen when using pure argon. Argon does not react at all with welded metal, whereas carbon dioxide can react to a limited extent. Thus, a combination of the two gases is often used. The main difference is that carbon dioxide costs less than argon, and the ratio of argon to carbon dioxide depends on what is being welded. MIG welding is widely used in industrial manufacturing, particularly furniture and automobile manufacturing. It uses a current of electricity that can either be direct or alternating to create an arc between the electrode and the plate metal to be welded. Semiautomatic MIG welding occurs when a person operates the 32 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 welding nozzle and can manipulate the actual welding process. Automatic MIG welding systems do not involve people operating the actual welding process as it happens. This usually means that robotic welding arms are often used, such as in car assembly plants. People may set up and supervise the automatic welding machines, but they do not actively participate unless settings need to be changed or mechanical problems arise. The two main MIG welding types are the conventional or the pulsed, depending on the type of power source used. Conventional MIG systems use a direct-current power source that supplies a constant voltage. It is not useful for welding metal sheets that are very thin and without a backing because it uses a higher heat input current. Pulsed MIG systems use a direct current power source like the conventional MIG system. This current is not consistent. Low current levels are punctuated with high current pulses, allowing a lower overall current compared to the conventional MIG system. Because it uses a lower overall current, this system can be used to weld thin sheets. MIG welding is used because it is relatively easy to learn and master. It is a relatively clean and quiet welding technique that can be used in all positions, including overhead, vertical, and horizontal. It can also be used with stainless steel, mild steels, and aluminum. There are several potential disadvantages. MIG welding requires a large amount of shielding gas, which can be expensive. The cost of tips and nozzles is higher than with other welding techniques. It cannot be used to weld thick steel or for welding on surfaces that are dirty, painted, or that have a lot of corrosion. Safety is an important aspect of any kind of welding technique. As with other arc welding techniques, the arc produced during MIG welding can reach temperatures of 3600 degrees. This is well beyond the temperature hot enough for fires to start. A carbon dioxide fire extinguisher should always be present when welding. Welders can prevent burns and other injuries by wearing welding gloves, protective clothing such as coveralls, and safety glasses at all time. Adequate ventilation is also important because inhaling shielding gas can cause sickness. The different metal vapors that are produced during the MIG welding technique are poisonous and can cause heavy metal poisoning. Permanent lung damage is also possible over time. Using eye protection is important during arc welding processes because the bright light that is generated can cause “arc eye”, which can cause eye pain and insomnia. The ultraviolet light can cause sunburns which can lead to skin cancers, and can also reduce a person’s night vision, or ability to see at night. 33 Please select the best answer from the choices provided for each question. 1. Why can pulsed MIG systems be used to weld thinner sheet metals? a. Pulsing the electrode creates a flatter bead than conventional current. b. Pulsing electrons keeps the electrons aligned in a strait line, making it easier to direct the flow of the weld. c. The pulsing electron flow generates less heat that a conventional flow, which prevents burning through thin sheets of metal. d. Pulsed electron flow uses less weld filler from the electrode, thus keeping the weld approximately the same thickness as thin sheet metal. 2. Why is oxidation undesirable in welding processes? a. Oxidation changes the color of the weld, so that it is noticeable to the naked eye. b. Oxidation creates a poor quality weld that is not durability. c. Oxidation adds too much oxygen to the weld, creating a weld that is too hot. d. Oxidation creates welds with too much splatter. 3. Which of the following are reasons for the popularity of MIG welding? I. MIG welding is easy to learn. II. MIG welding can be used in all positions. III. MIG welding is clean. IV. MIG welding is low temperature. a. I only. b. II and III only. c. I and IV only. d. I, II, and III. 4. Basic welding requires which of the following materials? a. An electrode, two pieces of metal, and a power source. b. Electricity, a circuit, and two pieces of metal. c. An electrode, two pieces of metal, and a short circuit. d. A short circuit, a power source, and two pieces of metal. 5. Based upon what you know about aluminum, why do you think that aluminum alloys are used in MIG welding for electrodes? a. Aluminum has similar chemical properties to most base metals. b. Aluminum is soft and melts at low temperatures, thus enabling molten metal to flow into the joint to be welded. c. Aluminum is also inert, so it contributes to the shielding process and high quality welds. d. Aluminum electrodes conduct electricity with greater efficiency, thus reducing the need for a lot of energy during welding. 6. What is a common name for a welded joint? a. Molt. b. Base metal. c. Electrode. d. Bead. 7. Welding uses inert gases to protect the weld. What is this gas called? a. Welding gas. b. Metal inert gas. c. Oxidation gas. d. Shielding gas. 34 8. Welding can be dangerous, especially with high heat and fire potential. Why should the fire extinguisher be a carbon dioxide fire extinguisher and not a water fire extinguisher? a. Water fire extinguishers would not cool the metal quickly enough to put out the fire, whereas carbon dioxide will. b. Carbon dioxide fire extinguishers are desirable for putting out all types of fires. c. If water were used, it would contact the electricity, raising the possibility of shock and electrocution. d. Carbon dioxide is a shielding gas, which protects the weld, in addition to extinguishing the fire. 9. What is the purpose of the final paragraph of the passage? a. To persuade the reader to learn MIG welding. b. To persuade the reader to use caution when MIG welding. c. To inform the reader about the high temperatures involved with welding. d. To compare MIG welding with various other kinds of welding. 10. MIG welding uses inert gases. What do you think is a definition of inert gas? a. A gas that heats quickly to create a high temperature weld. b. A gas that does not react with other gases or chemicals. c. A gas that burns to add temperature to the welding process. d. All of the above. 35 Agricultural Mechanics & Technology. MIG Welding. Answer key. # 1 Answer: letter C 2 B Oxidation creates a poor quality weld that is not durability. 3 D I, II, and III. MIG welding is easy to learn. MIG welding can be used in all positions. MIG welding is clean. 4 A An electrode, two pieces of metal, and a power source. Literal 5 B Aluminum is soft and melts at low temperatures, thus enabling molten metal to flow into the joint to be welded. Extension 6 D Bead Literal 7 D Shielding gas. Literal 8 C If water were used, it would contact the electricity, raising the possibility of shock and electrocution. Extension 9 B To persuade the reader to use caution when MIG welding. Inferential 10 B A gas that does not react with other gases or chemicals. Extension Answer: description The pulsing electron flow generates less heat that a conventional flow, which prevents burning through thin sheets of metal. Type of Question Inferential Literal Inferential 36 Agricultural Science Reading and Comprehension Set 7 Travis Park, Cornell University Soil Science. Vermiculture. 1 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Earthworms are wonderful consumers of organic matter in the soil. They are also quite efficient at producing a product that is fertile and useful for many plants. Vermiculture is the use of worms to break organic matter by some species of earthworms into vermicompost. Vermicompost is also called worm castings or humus. It is the desired product during the vermiculture process. Vermicompost is high in nutrients that are used by plants. It is also used in improving the texture and density of some soils. Vermiculture systems can be used outdoors in compost piles for the rapid decomposition of lawn, garden, and food wastes. Vermiculture can also be used indoors, most often in kitchens, in order to break down household food waste. Newspapers and other paper without chemicals can also be broken down in a compost bin. Indoor vermicomposting systems consist of covered plastic, wood, or Styrofoam bins and a closeable tap at the bottom that allows liquids to be removed. This container is filled with a layer of gravel and stones on the bottom of the container. The stones are covered by a fine mesh to prevent worms from falling into the liquid produced during the decomposition process. Damp, shredded newspaper provides the worm habitat, while common kitchen waste serves as worm food. Newspaper is the best and easiest bedding material to find and should be damp when placed into the container. Many large-scale outdoor composting systems use earthworms as decomposers. Decomposers are organism that break down dead plants and animals. These outdoor systems can consist of windrows, which are long piles of bedding materials that are laid on top of the ground or concrete surface to prevent predators from feeding on the worms. Outdoor systems may also use raised beds. In the raised bed system, the worms are fed at the top of the bed. The vermicompost is harvested from below the beds by using a breaker bar that is pulled across a mesh screen at the base of the bed. The containers can be designed for different indoor purposes. For the purpose of continuous harvesting of the vermicompost, a series of trays that are aligned horizontally should be used. Since earthworms will migrate towards their food source, a piece of mesh that has holes large enough for the worms to migrate through divides the bin vertically into two separate compartments. When one 37 40 45 compartment is full of vermicompost and is ready to be harvested, the food wastes are placed in the other compartment in order to encourage the worms to migrate to the new compartment. Then, the vermicompost can be collected from the old compartment without worms being harvested in the process. Another system that can be used indoors consists of a series of trays that are stacked vertically. The tray on the bottom is filled first with the newspaper bedding and food waste. When the tray is full of vermicompost, second tray is placed on top of the first one and is filled with newspaper and food waste. When the worms have migrated from the bottom tray to the top tray, the bottom tray can be removed and cleaned. 50 Yet another system for vermicomposting involves an undivided container. All of the newspaper, food material, and worms are mixed together in the same container. This system is easy to build, but it is difficult to harvest the vermicompost because the worms and the compost must be emptied at the same time. 55 There are many species of earthworms, molds, bacteria, as well as other decomposing organisms in nature that naturally break down organic matter and litter. Vermiculture uses two main earthworm species: Eisenia foetida, the Common Red Wiggler and Lumbricus rubellus, the Red Earthworm. (Nightcrawlers are not recommended because they tend to crawl out of and away from the vermicompost.) These species are preferred because of their ability to break down vegetation and animal manure efficiently. Individuals of these species eat and digest approximately their entire body weight in food waste every day. Thus, the produce vermicompost more quickly than other earthworm species. The worms can break down meat food wastes, but cannot digest bones. Also, composters will want to minimize the amount of food wastes containing high amounts of chemical pesticide residues, such as banana peels. These chemicals can harm the worms. 60 65 70 75 When the vermicompost has been digested properly, it is a rich, dark brown or black color. It can be used to amend, or improve, soils that are used for food crops. It should be mixed into soil, and not used alone, because it is very concentrated. When used alone, it can cause poor plant growth. It can also be used indoors with houseplants by sprinkling a small amount around the base of the plant, avoiding contact with the leaves. When the plants are watered, the nutrients from the vermicompost are washed down into the root zone of the plant. 38 Please select the best answer from the choices provided for each question. 1. In lines 2-3, the author states that earthworms produce a product that is fertile and useful for plants. What is that product? a. Organic matter. b. Humidity. c. Nitrogen. d. Vermicompost. 2. Why should nightcrawlers be avoided in the compost bin? a. Nightcrawlers do not decompose household waste. b. Nightcrawlers tend to crawl out of compost bins. c. Compost is poisonous to nightcrawlers. d. None of the above. 3. If you did use nightcrawlers in vermiculture, and they escaped into your house, based upon the passage, what would be one method to get them out of your house without harm? a. Create a trail of vermicompost from the room where they escaped leading outside the house. b. Use Red Wigglers as natural predators of the nightcrawlers. c. Create a trail of moist newspapers leading from the room where they escaped to the outside of the house. d. Create a trail of food, household waste, leading from the room where they escaped to the outside of the house. 4. What conditions of a worm’s habitat should be recreated in a compost bin? a. Cool, damp, dark conditions. b. Warm, damp, dark conditions. c. Cool, dry, dark conditions. d. Warm, damp, light conditions. 5. In lines 50-54, the author presents ideas about a single-compartment compost bin. S/he states that these present difficulty in harvesting compost because it is difficult to separate the worms from the compost. What might be viable solutions to this challenge? I. Pick the worms out by hand. II. Use a screen to sort the worms from the compost. III. Not worry about losing a few worms, as the ones left behind will likely reproduce. a. I only. b. II and III only. c. I, II, and III. d. None of the above. 6. What household materials are easily composted in vermiculture? a. Food scraps and newspapers. b. Non-meat food scraps and newspapers. c. Non-vegetable food scraps and newspapers. d. Newspapers and magazines. 7. What is the name give to organisms that break down dead plants and animals? a. Producers. b. Consumers. c. Decomposers. d. Predators. 39 8. Compost bins use a couple of types of worms. Which are recommended? a. Common Red Wiggler and Red Earthworm. b. Common Red Wiggler and Nightcrawlers c. Red Earthworm and Nightcrawlers. d. Redworms and Hookworms. 9. Based upon information in the passage, if your home produced 12 pounds of food waste each day, how many worms would you need in your compost bin? a. 4 pounds. b. 6 pounds. c. 12 pounds. d. 24 pounds. 10. What could be a reason for the author writing this passage about vermicompost? a. To inform readers about the basics of creating a vermiculture system. b. To persuade readers to create a vermiculture system at home in order to reduce waste going to landfills. c. To encourage readers to consider composting as a means of creating a useful plant product. d. All of the above. e. Two of the above. f. None of the above. 40 Soil Science. Vermiculture. Answer key. # 1 Answer: letter D 2 B Nightcrawlers tend to crawl out of compost bins. 3 D Create a trail of food, household waste, leading from the room where they escaped to the outside of the house. Extension 4 A Cool, damp, dark conditions. Inferential 5 C I, II, and III. Pick the worms out by hand. Use a screen to sort the worms from the compost. Not worry about losing a few worms, as the ones left behind will likely reproduce. Extension 6 B Non-meat food scraps and newspapers. Inferential 7 C Decomposers. Literal 8 A Common Red Wiggler and Red Earthworm. Literal 9 C 12 pounds. Extension 10 D All of the above. To inform readers about the basics of creating a vermiculture system. To persuade readers to create a vermiculture system at home in order to reduce waste going to landfills. To encourage readers to consider composting as a means of creating a useful plant product. Inferential Answer: description Vermicompost. Type of Question Literal Literal 41 Agricultural Science Reading and Comprehension Set 8 Travis Park, Cornell University Biological Science Applications in Agriculture. Eutrophication. 1 5 10 15 20 Eutrophication is caused by an increase of nutrients in soil, water, or even an entire ecosystem. This process in water is especially detrimental to aquatic plants and animals. The accumulation of nutrients in bodies of water from nutrient runoff from sewage and fertilizers causes eutrophication. Most often, it causes excessive plant growth in aquatic ecosystems. The excess plant growth occurs in aquatic plant species that are unwanted. Aquatic ecosystems are those ecosystems that are located in or directly adjacent to streams, rivers, and lakes bodies of water. Eutrophication increases the amount of plant and algal growth in bodies of water. Excess growth of algae is called an algae bloom. Algae blooms occur because the algae receive a sudden surge in nutrients and grow rapidly. When the algae grows rapidly, it uses up oxygen in the water. It also chokes out other plants that would normally grow in the stream or lake. Some algae blooms may even cause human illness. Eutrophication also accelerates the decay of these organisms in water. This increased decay of organic matter results in hypoxia. Hypoxia is a condition marked by a lack of oxygen in the water available for fish and other animals. Oxygen is usually present in water as dissolved oxygen. The lack of dissolved oxygen in water leads to stress and even death of much aquatic life. Hypoxic water supports only anaerobic bacteria species, those which do not need oxygen to survive. 25 Eutrophication in water is a natural aging process of water bodies. Rain and decaying plants and animals in the water cause changes in the chemical make-up of the water. However, human activities can accelerate this aging process. The process is accelerated by the presence of phosphorus. 30 Fertilizers and sewage water contain large amounts of phosphorus. Phosphorus is a major component in agronomic and horticultural fertilizers. It is used for crop plants, gardens, and lawns and is an important nutrient even in aquatic ecosystems. Phosphorus runoff from sewers and septic systems can also speed the process of eutrophication. Sewage treatment detergents designed to neutralize calcium also contain large amounts of phosphorus. 35 42 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 Eutrophication also occurs in dry land, or terrestrial ecosystems. In these ecosystems, the build-up of fertilizers causes eutrophication. The increased amounts of nutrients in soils can lead to changes in the types of vegetation in an area. New plant species move into the area to take advantage of soil fertility. These new plants displace native species. Eutrophication can result in certain plant species becoming threatened or endangered. Plants, unlike animals, cannot move to more favorable locations. Eutrophication can be both reduced and prevented. By creating buffer zones between the source of nutrients and the body of water, nutrients can be intercepted and filtered out in the buffer zone instead of by the lake or stream. Buffer zones contain plants, especially grasses and trees, that use excess phosphorous from fields and lawns. These buffer zones can be placed between bodies of water and roads, housing developments, and agricultural fields. These buffer zones are sometimes called riparian zones. Riparian zones or buffer zones minimize the amount of pollution that the body of water receives. Another way to prevent eutrophication can be to change the policies that control how sewage, animal waste, and fertilizers are disposed of. By better managing nutrients and how we use them, we can prevent their misuse and better control where they ultimately travel in the ecosystem. Subdivisions are a primary source of fertilizer pollution. Homeowners can reduce the amount of fertilizer spread on lawns at one time. Or, homeowners can spread the timing of fertilizers in smaller amounts throughout the growing season. Routine testing of local water supplies can also help farmers and homeowners optimize the usefulness of fertilizers that are added to the land. Using global positioning systems and precision farming methods, farmers use fertilizers in the precise amount needed by the crops. By encouraging homeowners to test their soil before adding fertilizers to lawns and gardens, money, time, and fertilizers can both be saved. Bodies of water where eutrophication exists are difficult to remedy. Reversing eutrophication may take a long time. The main means of reversing eutrophication is by reducing the amount of phosphorus in the water. This means stopping the flow of sewage into bodies of water, decreasing the amount of phosphorus fertilizers used on lawns and fields near water, and creating buffer zones around bodies of water. Reducing eutrophication lowers the plant nutrients in water and increases the oxygen available for aquatic animals and plants. 43 Please select the best answer from the choices provided for each question. 1. The purpose of the first paragraph of the passage is to… a. persuade readers to eliminate eutrophication. b. define eutrophication and explain method of remedying the situation. c. persuade readers to encourage eutrophication. d. explain eutrophication and what causes it. 2. What are the problems caused by algae blooms in bodies of water? a. Depletion of oxygen and competition with other plant life. b. Addition of carbon dioxide and sedimentation. c. Depletion of oxygen and sedimentation. d. Sedimentation and introduction of microbes that cause human illness. 3. The last three paragraphs of the passage indicate groups of people who might be responsible for eutrophication. What can each group do to lessen the impact of eutrophication? I. Farmers can use precision farming to maximize the nutrients used by plants and minimize the nutrients in field run-off. II. Homeowners can use high volumes of fertilizer during dry times of the year. III. Sewage treatment engineers can find other uses of sewage and not dump it into rivers and streams. a. I only. b. II and III only. c. I and III only. d. I, II, and III. 4. Line 7 describes aquatic plants that are unwanted. What would be another name for these plants? a. Legumes. b. Weeds. c. Invasive species. d. Algae blooms. 5. What is another name for a buffer zone? a. Eutrophic zone. b. Grassed waterway. c. Riparian zone. d. Atrophic zone. 6. Water lacking in oxygen as a result of eutrophication is called… a. algal. b. hypoxic. c. eutrophic. d. oxygenated. 7. Why are plants especially susceptible to eutrophication? a. Plants cannot move from a nutrientrich area to one more suitable for growth. b. They are all rooted in soil, which contains elevated levels of nutrients. c. Plants require carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, and eutrophication reduces the amount of carbon dioxide in water and land. d. Eutrophication favors plant species that can make use of low levels of nutrients in water and soil. 44 8. Which plant nutrient is a major contributor to the problem of eutrophication? a. Nitrogen. b. Phosphorous. c. Potassium. d. Calcium. 9. Lines 54-61 explain how to minimize the effects of eutrophication. Which if the following would be the best summary of the paragraph? a. Eutrophication cannot be prevented. b. Eutrophication can be prevented by applying fertilizers in large volume at only one point in the growing season. c. Eutrophication can be eliminated if homeowners applied anti-algal chemicals when they fertilize their lawns. d. Eutrophication can be prevented by moderating the use of fertilizers. 10. Lines 26-27 state that eutrophication is a naturally occurring condition in bodies of water. If this is so, why should we be concerned about eutrophication? a. We should be concerned because all eutrophication is detrimental and should be stopped. b. Natural eutrophication allows organisms, especially plants, to uproot themselves and migrate to areas without excessive nutrients in the water. c. While eutrophication is naturally occurring, this process is usually slow and seasonal. Rapid eutrophication causes the algal blooms and other detrimental effects. d. None of the above. 45 Biological Science Applications in Agriculture. Eutrophication. Answer key. # 1 Answer: letter D 2 A Depletion of oxygen and competition with other plant life. 3 C I and III only. Farmers can use precision farming to maximize the nutrients used by plants and minimize the nutrients in field run-off. Sewage treatment engineers can find other uses of sewage and not dump it into rivers and streams. Inferential 4 B Weeds. Inferential 5 C Riparian zone. Literal 6 B Hypoxic. Literal 7 A Plants cannot move from a nutrient-rich area to one more suitable for growth. 8 B Phosphorus. 9 D Eutrophication can be prevented by moderating the use of fertilizers. Inferential 10 C While eutrophication is naturally occurring, this process is usually slow and seasonal. Rapid eutrophication causes the algal blooms and other detrimental effects. Extension Answer: description …explain eutrophication and what causes it. Type of Question Inferential Literal Extension Literal 46 Agricultural Science Reading and Comprehension Set 9 Travis Park, Cornell University Physical Science Applications in Agriculture. Alternative Energy Sources from Agriculture. 1 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 As our world population increases, we need new sources of energy. Non-renewable energy sources are those which, when used, cannot be replenished. Examples include coal, oil, and other fossil fuels. Non-renewable sources of energy are becoming increasingly expensive and scarce. Humans have developed alternative energy sources through innovative technology. These help meet the energy demands for transportation, electricity, and food production. Many kinds of alternative energy sources exist and are available for use by humans. Many people think that these are having no impact on the environment. However, even alternative energies frequently use some energy sources that are not non-renewable in their production. The two main goals of developing new alternative energy sources are that they are renewable and that they are sustainable. Four technologies that are being developed today as alternatives to non-renewable fossil fuels are biofuels, wind energy, solar energy, and geothermal energy. Biofuels are mostly liquids that are produced from plants that are harvested in ways similar to how they would be harvested if they were meant for human or animal consumption. There are two main ways to convert plants into energy for human use. The first involves growing crops that are high in sugars or starches, such as corn and sugar cane. Processers then use yeast to ferment the harvested crops and produce ethanol, a form of fuel, as the end product. The second way that plants can be used to produce energy is to grow crops that are high in oils, like algae and canola, which can be processed into fuels called biodiesels. A major controversial issue of biofuels is using crops for fuel. Instead of raising crops for food, farmers sell crops to make fuel. This may cause an increase in food costs for many people. This practice may also decrease the amount of food that can be exported for humanitarian purposes to other parts of the globe. Some people contend that the process of making ethanol is inefficient, meaning that the production of ethanol consumes nearly as much nonrenewable fuel as is produced. Wind energy technology is another alternative to nonrenewable fuels. The idea of using windmills for generating energy is not new. They have been used for many centuries to mill grains into 47 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 flour and pump water from farmland. Current issues with wind technology include the variability and unpredictability of wind. It is difficult to predict when wind speeds would be adequate for energy generation. While the windmills do not produce carbon dioxide and use small amounts of lubricating fuels when they operate, the manufacturing process is energy-intensive. Solar energy is produced using heat and light from the sun. The idea of using the sun to produce energy to meet the needs of humans is not new, either. Many cultures warm homes by building them oriented toward the sun. Today, using solar energy to produce electricity is most commonly accomplished with photovoltaics, or solar panels. While solar energy is increasing in popularity, the cost of installation and materials is initially high. Further, producing solar panels requires much energy. Geothermal energy is produced when energy that is generated by heat stored in the Earth’s core is collected and used for human purposes. It is more reliable than solar and wind energy because the heat energy produced by the Earth’s core is constant, Geothermal energy is not affected by atmospheric weather conditions. The main issue with geothermal power plants is that they can have detrimental effects on land stability near geothermal production facilities. Some production practices require the injection of water into dry bedrock. Also, some production facilities emit greenhouse gases that were trapped below the earth’s surface. Today, energy is commonly stored using batteries which contain chemicals that react in a closed system. With alternative energy sources, scientists are also trying to find better ways to store the energy that is produced. One main way that is currently being developed is the fuel cell. Fuel cells are different from batteries because they exhaust the chemical reactants used to produce the electricity. These reactants must then be replenished in order for the fuel cell to be used again. Scientists are currently working to see if hydrogen, chlorine, oxygen, and other alcohols can be used in fuel cell technology. This technology is not used widely because the cost is high and the efficiency is low. 48 Please select the best answer from the choices provided for each question. 1. The passage gives examples of nonrenewable fossil fuels. They are a. biofuels, wind energy, solar energy, and geothermal energy. b. light energy and kinetic energy. c. electrical energy, chemical energy and heat energy. d. coal and oil. 2. Why is the production of crops for biofuels a controversial topic? a. Farmers produce biofuels instead of food. b. It raises the prices of crops. c. Producing biofuels decreases the amount of crops to be exported. d. All of the above. 3. Which of the renewable energy sources is the most reliable? a. Solar energy. b. Geothermal energy. c. Wind energy. d. They are equally reliable. 4. Fuel cells differ from batteries because a. They exhaust the geothermal reactants used to produce the electricity. b. They exhaust the electrical reactants used to produce the electricity. c. They exhaust the chemical reactants used to produce the electricity. d. They do not differ. 5. When producing ethanol, processors will use crops which are high in a. vitamins and minerals. b. sugar and starches. c. oil and water. d. salt. 6. Using solar energy in private homes is increasing in popularity. There is one major drawback, what is it? a. Energy is wasted because the sun is so hot. b. The materials are initially quite expensive. c. Government holds many restrictions on building solar panels. d. Very few workers can install solar panels. 7. Why should we study or continue to embark on producing new sustainable energy resources? a. Sources of energy are decreasing, and the population is increasing. b. Crops such as corn and soybeans are in abundance for human consumption, so we need to find other uses. c. Non-renewable energy is becoming expensive. d. A and C. 8. Which of the following are possible solutions to the contention that food grown for fuel allows hunger to persist? I. Scientists can identify plants that yield higher quantities of biofuels. II. Scientists can identify plants that grow in areas not currently used for food crops. III. Scientists can identify plants that have properties useful for biofuels and food. a. I only b. II and III c. All of the above d. None of the above 49 9. The author of this passage would likely agree with which of the following statements? a. Biofuels offer a rich opportunity to address our global energy needs. b. Alternative energy sources may eventually be limited in volume. c. Non-renewable energy sources are not in limited supply. d. Use of solar energy is in jeopardy because of the greenhouse effect. 10. Even if scientists found new crops to use for biofuels, why might some people continue to argue that biofuels are not a viable option for energy? a. New crops used to produce biofuels still require productive farmland, which means food crops cannot be produced and hunger persists. b. Biofuels, because they are food crops, can also be used for food. c. Because new crops might be the product of science, they might harm the environment. d. Biofuels likely contribute to global warming because production of these crops involves greenhouse gases. 50 Physical Science Applications in Agriculture. Alternative Energy Sources from Agriculture. Answer key. # 1 Answer: letter D 2 D All of the above. Farmers produce biofuels instead of food. It raises the prices of crops. Producing biofuels decreases the amount of crops to be exported. 3 A Solar energy. Literal 4 C They exhaust the chemical reactants used to produce the electricity. Literal 5 B Sugar and starches. Literal 6 B The materials are initially quite expensive. Inferential 7 D A and C. Sources of energy are decreasing, and the population is increasing. Non-renewable energy is becoming expensive. Extension 8 C All of the above. Scientists can identify plants that yield higher quantities of biofuels. Scientists can identify plants that grow in areas not currently used for food crops. Scientists can identify plants that have properties useful for biofuels and food. Extension 9 A Biofuels offer a rich opportunity to address our global energy needs. Inferential 10 A New crops used to produce biofuels still require productive farmland, which means food crops cannot be produced and hunger persists. Extension Answer: description Coal and oil. Type of Question Literal Inferential 51 Agricultural Science Reading and Comprehension Set 10 Travis Park, Cornell University Central Core (Agriscience). Invasive Plant Species. 1 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Plants grow in a certain geographic area, called a range. Each species is uniquely adapted to the climatic and environmental conditions of that range. Over the course of many years, plants have adapted features that allow them to survive extremes of temperature, moisture, and soil conditions. Additionally they have adapted to survive specific disease, insect, and animal pressures. A plant that has adapted to its original range is called native species. Humans have occasionally carried unique plant species back home from their travels around the globe. Not all of these foreign species have survived the environmental or climatic conditions found in our country. However, some plant species have proven more adaptable to their new living conditions and have survived. These species, which not only survive, but thrive in areas beyond their native range, may become invasive species. According to the United States Department of Agriculture, an invasive species is one whose “introduction causes or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health” (USDA, 2008). They thrive beyond their natural range of dispersal. Invasive species thrive to the extent that they often become weeds, or nuisance plants. Why do these invasive species thrive in their new range? Often the environmental and climatic conditions of the new range are similar to that of their native habitat, allowing the invasive species to survive. As the invasive species continues to survive, it frequently finds that no competitive or predatory species exist in the new range. Competitive species are those organisms that compete for food, water, light, or space with the plant. Predatory species are those organisms which eat the leaves, stems, roots, or flowers of another plant species. These are often insects or animals. Lacking competitive or predatory species, the invasive plant species not only survives, but thrives, because no other organisms, aside from humans, are available to contain them. While eventually becoming weeds, invasive plant species have been collected and introduced for specific and honorable reasons. People import invasive species for reasons such as landscaping around homes, controlling the erosion as ground cover, feeding livestock, and providing living fences and natural barriers. Even though intentions were honorable, invasive plant species seemingly outwitted humans and many have become weeds. 52 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 An example of an invasive plant species is kudzu. Kudzu is a climbing perennial, semi-woody vine. Kudzu’s original range was Japan and China. It was introduced to the United States in the late 1800s as a means of ground cover for erosion control in the southeastern part of the United States. Finding no natural predators or competitors, kudzu spread quickly, growing up to one foot per day. The main detrimental impact of kudzu is that it grows so rapidly and with such dense foliage that it crowds out and smothers other plant species. When driving in the South, it is not uncommon to see the carpet-like kudzu plants completely covering roadsides, hillsides, and even large trees. Kudzu is listed as an invasive species in states ranging from Missouri and Illinois to Florida and Connecticut to parts of eastern Texas. Another invasive plant species that was imported to the United States from Asia is multiflora rose. Multiflora rose is a thorny, perennial shrub that grows to 15 feet tall. It was introduced to the United States as a living fence for livestock and for ornamental purposes in the 1860s. It is currently listed as an invasive species in al of North America with the exception of the arid regions of the western parts of America and Canada. Multiflora rose grows to form dense, nearly impenetrable thickets of plants that out-compete native plant species. A final example of an invasive plant species is johnsongrass. Johnsongrass is a tall perennial grass that grows in clumps reaching heights of eight feet. It was introduced in the early 1800s from the Mediterranean area. Johnsongrass is listed as an invasive plant species in all 50 states, except Alaska, Maine, and Minnesota. Johnsongrass possesses a tremendous power to reproduce quickly through many prolific seeds and through its rhizomes, horizontal stems that grow underground and produce roots and shoots. Johnsongrass is listed as one of the 10 worst weeds in the world. It displaces native vegetations and prohibits tree seedlings from growing. Control of invasive species is difficult primarily because they reproduce so quickly and prolifically. They also out-compete native plant species for light and water. While chemical controls usually work effectively, they also kill native species. Biological controls work as well, but biological controls often involve introducing a second invasive species of animal, insect, or disease. Thus, the most effective, but most expensive means of control is often human and mechanical means. 53 Please select the best answer from the choices provided for each question. 1. What is a plant that is uniquely adapted to a specific habitat and geographic area called? a. Range b. Native species c. Invasive species d. Extinct species. 2. Which of the following resources do invasive species compete with existing plant species? a. Space, light, and water. b. Space, nutrients, and oxygen. c. Light, nutrients, and oxygen. d. Humidity, carbon dioxide, and predators. 3. Why would some people have thought that multiflora rose would have made a good living fence? I. It is thorny. II. It grows to a tall height of 15 feet. III. It grows in rows. a. I only. b. II and III only. c. I and II only. d. I, II, and III. 4. In line 48, the term “carpet-like” refers to what growth habit of kudzu? a. Growth of up to one foot per day. b. Green, shaggy appearance. c. Wide, flat main stems. d. Dense, smothering foliage. 5. Many invasive species tend to be perennials. What does perennial mean? a. A plant whose life cycle lasts only one year. b. A plant whose life cycle lasts for two years, but with different forms each year. c. A plant whose life cycle lasts year after year. d. A plant that does not produce seeds. 6. What makes johnsongrass especially difficult to control? a. It is tall. b. It produces many seeds. c. It reproduces via rhizomes. d. It produces many seeds and via rhizomes. 7. Lines 32-38 describe some of the “honorable” reasons for introducing invasive species. What should be done in the future before introducing new species of plants outside of their natural range? a. At the same time, introduce a competing species of insect or animal to limit the growth of the invasive species. b. Examine the species limiting factors, such as climate, consumers, and soil conditions. c. Introduce invasive species regularly because the strongest plants will survive and improve the ecosystem. d. None of the above. e. All of the above. 54 8. What factors about the United States make it ideal for invasive species to grow? a. Fertile soils. b. Temperate climate. c. Plentiful rainfall. d. All of the above. 9. Not all species of plants introduced to our country from other countries are necessarily bad. What is the defining characteristic to determine whether a plant is invasive or not? a. The plant grows rapidly. b. The plant competes for resources, such as light, water, and space. c. The plant is a nuisance. d. The plant does not produce a beneficial seed or fruit. 10. Which of the following would be the best title for this passage? a. Invasive species provide real benefits for humans. b. Invasive species: Weaker than native species. c. Invasive species: Opportunities for new technologies. d. Invasive species: Plants gone bad. 55 Central Core (Agriscience). Invasive Plant Species. Answer key. # 1 Answer: letter B 2 A Space, light, and water. Literal 3 C I and II only. It is thorny. It grows to a tall height of 15 feet. Literal 4 D Dense, smothering foliage. Inferential 5 C A plant whose life cycle lasts year after year. Inferential 6 D It produces many seeds and via rhizomes. 7 B Examine the species limiting factors, such as climate, consumers, and soil conditions. Extension 8 D All of the above. Fertile soils. Temperate climate. Plentiful rainfall. Extension 9 C The plant is a nuisance. Inferential 10 D Invasive species: Plants gone bad. Inferential Answer: description Native species Type of Question Literal Literal 56 Agricultural Science Reading and Comprehension Set 11 Travis Park, Cornell University Food Science. Maple Syrup Production. 1 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Maple sugar is a sweetener that is made from the sap of maple trees. It can be used as an ingredient in baking, boiled into syrup, whipped into a cream, or concentrated into a hard candy. Today, the most common form of maple sugar is maple syrup. Many imitation forms of maple syrup exist for purchase at grocery stores. As a natural food, maple sugar has many uses. The maple sugaring process was originally discovered by Native Americans who would cut the bark of a maple tree. They collected the sap in hollowed logs as it dripped out of the tree. Hot stones would be added to the sap in order to boil the water, leaving thick sugar crystals that would not spoil during storage. These Native Americans shared their process of producing maple syrup with the European colonists, who used tin buckets to collect the sap from the plentiful maple trees. While all trees produce sugary sap, only a few species have a high enough sugar concentration to be used efficiently for syrup. While the Sugar Maple, Acer Saccharum, is the most widely used tree species used for making syrup, black maples, silver maples, red maples, box elders, hickories, and birch trees can also be used. Only about five percent of the tree’s total sap is used for making syrup, so there is plenty left for the tree to use during its growing process. Maple sap contains mostly water. Sucrose is the major sugar component that is produced by the plant through the process of photosynthesis. In the fall, the sugars that are produced from photosynthesis are transported by the tree into the roots as starches, where they help the plant survive the cold winter. In early spring between February and April, the starches are converted to sugar and are transported to the twigs and leaf buds where they help the plant produce new growth. Sap flows throughout the tree during the entire growing season, but only the sap that is present during the early spring is used for syrup production. The sugars in the sap help keep the tree from freezing during the winter. The sap from many maple trees is required to make maple syrup. It takes about forty gallons of sap to make one gallon of maple syrup. One gallon of syrup weighs about eleven pounds. When first collected, sap is nearly colorless, almost tasteless, and low in sugar content. The best days for sap collection are days that are warm 57 during the day and cold during the night. 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 The process of making maple syrup begins with a tree that is at least 10 inches in diameter. A small hole that is about two inches deep and about a half inch in diameter is drilled into the tree. A spile is a hollow spout that is inserted into the hole. A galvanized collection bucket is hung from the spile. It is important to collect the sap within a day of being collected in order to prevent it from fermenting. The sap is collected in a big storage tank where an evaporator is used to boil the water out of the syrup. The syrup can be boiled down further to remove additional water, making maple candy. The evaporator uses a heat source, most often a wood furnace, to heat the sap. Heavy cast iron grates are used to hold the fire out of the ashes. The sap holding tank is above the fire. The sap flows by gravity down to the flue pan where the amount of sap that enters is controlled by a float valve. When the sap flows through the flue pan, it enters the syrup pan, which has a flat bottom. This is where the maple syrup is boiled to the proper sugar concentration. It is important to keep the syrup moving in the evaporator in order to prevent burning. The evaporator heats the sap to 185 degrees Fahrenheit. Today, plastic tubes can be used for transporting the tree sap to collection tanks in a sugar house. A sugar house is the term used to name the building where sap is boiled and maple syrup is produced. Usually gravity and the internal pressure of the tree force the sap into the collection buckets, but a system that uses a vacuum pump can also be used. Pure maple syrup is a relative delicacy, and it is good for your health. Pure maple syrup contains more minerals than honey. It also contains fewer calories than honey. Pure maple syrup is an excellent source of manganese and a good source of zinc. Manganese is an antioxidant, which contributes to cancer prevention. Zinc slows the progression of arteriosclerosis, a disease affecting arterial blood vessels. Both zinc and manganese help the body’s immune system fight illness and disease. 58 Please select the best answer from the choices provided for each question. 1. According to the passage, who is credited with discovering maple syrup? a. Acer Saccharum. b. Europeans. c. Vikings. d. Native Americans. 2. Which species of maple tree is the most widely used for maple syrup production? a. Red maple. b. Black maple. c. Sugar maple. d. Norway maple. 3. How many gallons of sap are required to produce one gallon of pure maple syrup? a. 10. b. 11. c. 40. d. 185. 4. What is the major sugar produced during photosynthesis? a. Fructose. b. Glucose. c. Maltose. d. Sucrose. 5. When processing sap to make pure maple syrup, what is the waste product? a. Carbon dioxide. b. Water. c. Fire. d. Stiles. 6. Sap collected in tubes uses gravity and the tree’s internal pressure. What is causing this internal pressure? a. Gravity. b. Trees moving sugars from roots to limbs for leaf production. c. Moon cycles, similar to what produces ocean waves. d. The thawing of soils in spring. 7. What percentage of the tree’s sap is collected to be used for maple syrup production? a. 5%. b. 10%. c. 25%. d. 50%. 8. What is the purpose of sap in trees? I. It carries pure maple syrup from the leaves to the roots. II. It carries the chlorophyll from roots to the leaves of plants, like our skin pigments. III. It carries water and nutrients throughout the tree, similar to our blood. a. I only. b. II and III only. c. I and II only. d. III only. 59 9. Although the first paragraph indicates that imitation versions of maple syrup exist, what is the purpose of the final paragraph? a. To explain the process of maple syrup production. b. To provide evidence to persuade the reader to purchase pure maple syrup. c. To argue against tapping trees for maple syrup production. d. To demonstrate the value of maple syrup to forest ecosystems. 10. What is the major sugar produced during the process of making pure maple syrup? a. Fructose. b. Glucose. c. Maltose. d. Sucrose. 60 Food Science. Maple Syrup Production. Answer key. # 1 Answer: letter D 2 C Sugar maple. Literal 3 C 40. Literal 4 D Sucrose. Literal 5 B Water. Inferential 6 B Trees moving sugars from roots to limbs for leaf production. Inferential 7 A 5%. 8 D III only. It carries water and nutrients throughout the tree, similar to our blood. Extension 9 B To provide evidence to persuade the reader to purchase pure maple syrup. Inferential 10 D Sucrose. Extension Answer: description Native Americans. Type of Question Literal Literal 61