Anatomy & Physiology - Main Study Guide

ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY STRUCTURE 1. atom 2. molecule 3. organelle 4. cell 5. tissue 6. organ 7. organ system 8. organism PLANES TISSUES connective - most widely distributed - loose connective tissue - cartilage - bone tissue - blood nervous - neurons - neuroglia (glia) epithelial line the outer surfaces of organs and blood vessels through the body as well as the inner surfaces of cavities of internal organs. muscle -skeletal -moves the body -cardiac -found in the heart -smooth -internal organs ORGAN SYSTEMS 1. respiratory 2. cardiovascular 3. gastrointestinal 4. nervous 5. muscle 6. reproductive 7. integumentary 8. endocrine 9. urinary 10. immune 11. skeletal CELL STRUCTURE & FUNCTION EUKARYOTIC Organelles PROKARYOTIC Nucleus Mitochondria Golgi apparatus Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Lysosome Ribosomes o o o o o JUNIOR OCHOA STUDY GUIDE SCIENCE - A&P 08/22/19 Simple cell Lacks nucleous Lacks organells Single open space Found in bacteria o o o o o Found in humnas Has nucleous Has organells Membrane bound Complex DNA Centrioles Smooth ER Rough ER Notes: Function Houses DNA, brain of cell DNA gives the cell function Energy production (powerhouse) Sorting, packaging and transport of proteins Synthesis and processing of proteins, lipid expression Digestion of large molecules Protein synthesis Develop spindle fibers for cell division Synthesis of lipids Synthesis of proteins & it has ribosomes attached to it AIR PATHWAY RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Function Extraction of oxygen (O2) from the atmosphere and expelling of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the body. Lungs 3R & 2L (lobes) – Main structure of the respiratory system Diaphragm Dome shaped sheet of muscle and tendon that serves as the main muscle of respiration and plays a vital role in the breathing process Surfactant Lipid mix that reduces surface tension. Prevents the alveoli from sticking together and stopping atelectasis (collapsed lung) Pleura Membrane around lungs, inside chest cavity Pharynx: Located behind the mouth also part of the GI tract Larynx: Voice box Trachea: Windpipe Connects Larynx to Lungs Bronchi: Main passageways, attached to the lungs Bronchioles: Smaller than bronchi and they connect to alveoli ALVEOLI Tiny air sacs, site of O2 & CO2 exchange Occurs by diffusion (passive transport) Perfusion Passage of fluid to an organ or tissue Tidal Volume The amount of air breathed in normal inhalation or exhalation Total Lung Capacity (TLC) Amount of gas in lungs after maximum inspiration (deep breath) Vital Capacity (VC) Gas that can be expelled Residual Volume (RV) Remaining gas VC + RV = Total Lung Capacity Emphysema Destroys elastic lung tissue, with a greater than normal lung expansion. Poor recoil and increased residual volume VENTILATION Movement of air in and out of body via inhalation and exhalation Inhalation Exhalation Hyperventilation Hypoventilation Diaphragm contracts downward Diaphragm relaxes upward More CO2 than the Breathing at an Ribs push out Ribs relax body can produce abnormally slow rate, Lungs fill with air Air pushes out of lungs Breathing out more resulting in an increased LV + / AP LV - / AP + than in amount of CO2 in blood LV = Lung volume AP = Alveolar pressure BLOOD PATHWAY CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM Function Movement of blood & lymph through the body Nutrient distribution Waste Removal Communication & protection Blood CARDIAC CYCLE Sinoatrial (SA) Node → Atrioventricular (AV) Node AV Bundle → Purkinje fibers → Ventricles contract The SA or “pacemaker” controls contractions via electrical signals. Blood pressure is fluid pressure generated by the cardiac cycle (systole/diastole) Pulmonary System (Loop) Pumps deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs Systemic System (Loop) Receives oxygenated blood from lungs and pumps it towards the rest of the body R. Atrium → Tricuspid V. R. Ventricle → Pulmonary V. Pulmonary A. → LUNGS LUNGS → Pulmonary Vein L. Atrium → Mitral V. L. Ventricle → Aortic V. Aorta → BODY SYSTOLE Heart expels blood (contract) DIASTOLE Heart refills with blood (rest) Notes: Pulmonary Valve = Semilunar Valve Mitral Valve = Bicuspid Valve Aortic Valve = Semilunar Valve Arteries Moves blood away from the heart, it is made of a thick layer of smooth muscle Aorta: Large artery branching off from the heart to the rest of the body. Arteriole: Small artery Capillary: Small bed that connects arterioles to venules Veins Carries blood to the heart, they are made of a thinner layer of smooth muscle and they have valves that prevent backflow Vena Cava: All veins get emptied in the superior and inferior vena cava Venules: Small veins Capillary: Small bed that connects arterioles to venules LYMPHATIC SYSTEM Lymph: Clear fluid that moves through the body to fight disease Lymphatic Capillaries: Absorb excess fluid & plasma that leaks from capillaries DISEASES Myocardial infraction (heart attack) Death of the heart muscle due to inadequate blood supply Stroke (brain attack) Damage to the brain due to inadequate blood supply Anemia Not enough healthy RBC Hypertension High blood pressure, systole over 140mmHg/diastole over 90mmHg Embolus Not a disease but it’ plaque or clotted blood Aneurysm Localized abnormal weak spot on a blood vessel wall that causes an outward bulging, likened to a bubble or balloon. Hemorrhage occurs when it bursts. Atherosclerosis Narrowing of arteries due to plaque buildup on artery walls Arrhythmia Abnormal heart rhythm Tachycardia (too fast) & Bradycardia (too slow) DIGESTIVE SYSTEM GASTROINTESTINAL SYSTEM Function Food breakdown for body distribution Mechanical and chemical (enzymatic) digestion Blood vessels absorb the digested nutrients and smooth muscle is under parasympathetic nervous system control Liver From the small intestine, blood carrying nutrients passes to the liver through the hepatic duct allowing liver enzymes to deaminate (removal of an amino group from a molecule). Convert ammonia to urea, metabolize consumed toxins, and store glucose as glycogen. Alkaline bile via the gallbladder emulsifies lipids (fats) The liver filters digestion products and produces urea as waste Enzymes: Bile (stored in gall bladder) Pancreas Gland part of the digestive and endocrine system that produces insulin and secretes pancreatic juice, which is made up of water, salts, bicarbonate, & digestive enzymes Enzymes: Pancreatic juices Bicarbonate, lipase, trypsinogen, proteases, & amylase Notes: Abdominal cavity is lined by peritoneum. Lacteals absorb fats into lymph Enzyme Digestion: Lipase → fats Amylase → starches Trypsin → proteins Mouth Mastication (chewing) beings with saliva (amylase) and the tongue forms a bolus, which is a mass of food that has been chewed and swallowed (deglutition). The epiglottis closes passage to the trachea and allows food into the esophagus. Peristalsis, a serious of muscle contractions move bolus through the alimentary canal Enzymes: salivary amylase, salivary lipase Stomach Gastric sphincters open to allow food into the stomach and prevent backflow (reflux). Pepsin (enzyme) initiates chemical digestion of proteins. Enzyme secretions (gastric juices): Pepsinogen (chief cells), Mucus (goblet cells), Hydrochloric acid (parietal cells). Enzymes: Gastric lipase, pepsinogen, hydrochloric acid Hormones: Gastrin, ghrelin Small Intestine Mixed food (chyme) passes through the pyloric sphincter into the duodenum. The small intestine is broken down into 3 sections: 1. Duodenum Chyme is neutralized by bicarbonate in pancreatic secretions. It receives alkaline bile juices from gall bladder that help neutralize acid chyme. Production of “brush border” enzymes: Proteases, lactase, bicarbonate, other disaccharides 2. Jejunum Second section of small intestine where majority of absorption occurs 3. Ileum Villi and microvilli absorb polar digested nutrients into blood, lipids into lacteals as chylomicrons, and vitamin B12 Enzymes: Proteases, lactase, disaccharidases Hormones: Cholecystokinin, somatostatin, secretin, motilin Large Intestine Also known as the colon, where vitamins and water are absorbed before feces is stores prior to elimination The remaining water and salt is absorbed from digested food Waste is exposed to bacterial fermentation in the colon Vitamin K is absorbed in the large intestine Waste accumulates in the rectum and is ejected through anus Enzymes: None Hormones: None NERVOUS SYSTEM NEUROLOGICAL SYSTEM Function Controls voluntary & involuntary movement It regulates the body by responding to different stimuli (changes that occur both inside and outside the body. LOBES Brain & Spinal Cord Assembles motor responses Peripheral Nervous System CNS  AFFERENT  PNS CNS → EFFERENT → PNS Automatic (visceral) Somatic Involuntary Voluntary Controls actions involving Carries information to cardia and smooth muscle CNS from senses & from CNS to skeletal muscles Sympathetic: Arouses body Fight or Flight Frontal Lobe Thinking, organization, emotions, behavior, personality Parietal Lobe Perception, making sense, arithmetic, spelling Temporal Lobe Memory, understanding, language Occipital Lobe Vision Cerebellum Balance, coordination NEURON Parasympathetic: Calms body Rest and Digest Neurotransmitters A chemical substance that is release from the axon terminal by the arrival of a nerve impulse 1. Diffuses across the synapse (chemical process) 2. Causes the transfer of the impulse to another nerve fiber, a muscle fiber, or some other structure at the dendrite of the other cell Nerve Long bundles of axons that transmit signals from the CNS Electrical impulses from dendrite to axon terminal Dendrite → Axon → Axon Terminal Transmitted from cell to cell via neurotransmitters secreted into the synapse from the axon terminal Synapse The structure that allows neurons to pass signals to other neurons, muscles or glands Acetylcholine: Causes muscle to contract Dopamine: Precursor to epinephrine Notes: Afferent (sensory) & Efferent (motor) MUSCLE SYSTEM STRUCTURE OF MUSCLE Function Movement in the body sustaining posture and body position. There are three types of muscle tissues: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth. Excitability: Electric gradient Contraction: Shorten Elongate: Relax Skeletal Muscle Voluntary muscles that work in pairs to move Composed of muscle fibers (cells) that are bound together in parallel bundles. Also known as striated muscle due to their stripped appearance. Smooth Muscle Involuntary muscles that are found in the walls of internal organs such as the stomach, intestines and blood vessels. Smooth muscle tissue (visceral tissue) is nonstriated. Also found in sphincters or valves that control various openings through the body Cardiac Muscle Involuntary muscle that is found in the heart Action Potential When an action potential (electrical signal) reaches a muscle fiber, calcium ions are released. Calcium ions bind to the myosin and actin, which assists in the binding of the myosin heads of the thick filaments to the actin molecules of the thin filaments. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) released from glucose muscle → fascicle → fiber → myofibril → sarcomere provides the energy necessary for the contraction and MYOSIN (thick) & ACTIN (thin) relaxation. MAJOR MUSCLES OF THE BODY MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Hormones Estrogen: stimulates egg maturation & female sex characteristics Progesterone: Prepares uterus to receive fertilized egg FSH: Stimulates oogenesis LH: Stimulates estrogen production Oxytocin: Stimulates contractions & mammary glands Prolactin: Stimulates milk production Follicular Phase FSH stimulates maturation of the follicle, secretes estrogen. Estrogen helps regenerate the uterine lining that was shed during menstruation. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Function Produce, maintain, and transfer sperm and semen into the female reproductive tract and to produce and secrete male hormones. External Organs Scrotum: Protects testes; keeps optimal temperature for spermatogenesis. Testes: Male gonads, produce sperm and testosterone Internal Organs Epididymis: Stores sperm as it matures Vas Deferens: Mature sperm moves from epididymis to Vas Deferens to the ejaculatory duct Seminal vesicles: secrete alkaline fluids with protein and mucus int ejaculatory duct Prostate gland: Secretes milky white fluid with proteins and enzymes as part of semen Bulbourethral (Cowper’s) gland: Secrets a fluid to neutralize the acidity in the urethra HORMONES Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) – stimulates spermatogenesis Luteinizing hormone (LH) – stimulate testosterone production Testosterone – Responsible for male sex characteristics Function Produce ova (oocyte/egg cells), transfers ova to fallopian tubes for fertilization. Receive sperm from male and provide a protect, nourishing environment for developing embryo. External Organs Labia (both): Close and protect vagina Bartholin’s gland: Secrete lubricating fluid Clitoris: Contains erectile tissue and nerve endings for sensual pleasure Internal Organs Ovaries: Female gonads, produce ova, and secrete estrogen and progesterone Fallopian tubes: Carry mature egg towards uterus, cite of fertilization Uterus: Fertilized egg implants on the uterine wall; protects and nourishes developing embryo until birth Vagina: Muscular tube from cervix to outside of body; receives semen, is site of intercourse, and birth canal Pituitary Gland Releases FSH and LH Notes: FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE Ovulation Luteal Phase A surge in LH causes the Starts the formation of the corpus luteum from the release of a secondary remnants of the follicle oocyte from the ovary The corpus luteum secretes progesterone and estrogen, which inhibits FSH & LH Progesterone also maintains the thickness of the endometrium Corpus luteum regresses and estrogen and progesterone drop SKIN LAYERS INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM Function The skin is an important organ in maintaining homeostasis and providing a waterproof barrier between the inside of the body and the external environment. Synthesizes Vitamin D Regulation of body temperature (thermoregulation) GLANDS Exocrine: Secrete substances into ducts directly to the outside surface of the skin Sebaceous: Secrete sebum, an oily mixture of lipids and proteins; waterproofs skin, & protects against pathogens Eccrine: Not connected to follicle, activated by high body temperature, located throughout the body. A type of sweat gland (sudoriferous gland) in thermo regulation Apocrine: Secrete an oily solution; secretes (sweat) during anxiety or stress Body odor forms from bacteria feeding on apocrine sweat Ceruminous gland: sebum w/ dead skin (cerumen) EPIDERMIS Most superficial layer of the skin, entirely epithelial cells and avascular. Stratum (S.) S. Corneum Dead keratinocytes S. Lucidum Colorless protein eleidin S. Granulosum Granular layer S. Spinosum Thickest layer, keratinocytes, immune dendritic cells, sensory cells S. Basale Bottom layer, contains melanocytes Melanocytes: Produces melanin, a pigment that gives skin its color and protects against UV radiation Langerhans: Antigen-presenting cells of the immune system (phagocytes), more common in s. spinosum Merkel cells: Cutaneous receptors, detect light touch, s. basale DERMIS Mostly made of connective tissue Contains: Blood vessels, sensory receptors, hair follicles, sebaceous glands, sweat glands, elastin & collagen fibers Fibroblasts: Secrete collagen elastin, glycosaminoglycans Adipocytes: Fat cells Macrophages: Phagocytic cells that engulf potential pathogens Mast cells: Antigen-presenting cells that play a role in the inflammatory response (release histamine) HYPODERMIS (SUBCUTANEOUS) Binds the skin to underlying muscle, fat deposits cushion and insulate the body. Highly vascular and loose connective tissue THERMOREGULATION HYPOTHALAMUS VASODIALATION Increases blood vessel diameter It takes heat out from body faster It not enough heat is released; the hypothalamus stimulates sweat glands (perspiration) As the sweat dies out it causes evaporative cooling Notes: VASOCONSTRICTION Decreases blood vessel diameter Shivering (generated heat) Arrector Pilli muscles tens up and cause hair to brittle Warms up body ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Hypothalamus ENDOCRINE GLANDS Hormone Releasing/Inhibiting Function A set of organs that secrete hormones directly into the circulatory system. These glands send hormones (chemical messengers) through the blood to other organs and tissues in the body to control the function of that organ. Negative Feedback Maintains homeostasis Blood pressure & body temperature Positive Feedback Puts body out of homeostasis Childbirth & ovulation Steroid Hormone Testosterone & estrogen; fat soluble It can cross cell membrane Non-Steroid Hormone All hormones, except testosterone & estrogen. Relay instead of crossing membrane Notes: Function Stimulate pituitary Pineal Gland Melatonin Sleep wake cycle Anterior Pituitary Gland Thyroid Stimulating H. (TSH) Stim. thyroid gland Follicle Stimulating H. (FSH) Stim. production of ova & sperm Luteinizing H. (LH) Stim. ovaries and testes Prolactin Stim. milk production Growth H. Stim. bone growth & metabolic fxn Adrenocorticotropic H. (ACTH) Stim. adrenal cortex; glucocorticoids Posterior Pituitary Gland Antidiuretic H. (ADH) Promotes H2O retention by kidneys Oxytocin Stim. contractions of uterus & mammary glands Parathyroid Glands Parathyroid H. (PTH) Stim. release of calcium from bones, back into blood Thyroid Glands Triiodothyronine (T3) Metabolism Thyroxine (T4) Metabolism and temperature Calcitonin Inhibits release of calcium from bones Thymus Thymosin Stimulates T-cell development Liver Angiotensin II Vasoconstriction, increase BP Adrenal Glands Cortisol/Glucocorticoids Stress response; increase blood glucose Decrease immune response Aldosterone Regulates sodium (Na) content in blood Adrenal Cortex Epinephrine Fight Norepinephrine Flight Kidneys Erythropoietin Response to cellular hypoxia Renin Promotes production of Angiotensin Pancreas Glucagon (Alpha cells) Increase blood glucose Insulin (Beta cells) Decrease blood glucose Ovaries Estrogen Stimulates egg maturation, secondary sex characteristics Progesterone Prepares uterus to receive fertilized egg Testes Testosterone Regulates sperm production and secondary sex characteristics URINARY ORGANS NEPHRON URINARY SYSTEM Function The urinary system is capable o eliminating excess substance while preserving the substances needed by the body to function. The urinary system consists of the kidneys, urinary ducts, and bladder. Kidneys Regulates fluid balance & filters waste from blood. Receive blood from renal artery (extension of aorta), filter blood, reabsorbs needed material, excrete waste and water via urine. Renal Cortex (outer layer) Contains 1million nephrons (filters), Glomerulus: Capillaries in nephron Bowman’s Capsule: Encapsulates the glomerulus Renal Medulla (middle layer) Proximal Convoluted Tubule: Water, glucose, ions, and other organic molecules are reabsorbed back into the blood stream Distal Convoluted Tubule: Urea and drugs are removed from blood. pH in blood is adjusted with H+ ions. Renal Pelvis Materials arrive as urine from distal convoluted tubule RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN-ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM IMMUNE SYSTEM General Immune Defenses Function Skin: Primary barrier (intact) Protects the body against invading pathogens; including Ciliated Mucus Membranes: Cilia protect respiratory sys. bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protists Gastric Secretions: Gastric acid destroys pathogens Lymphatic System Normal bacterial population: Compete with pathogens in gut Lymph, lymph capillaries lymph vessels, lymph nodes and vagina Skeletal muscle contractions move the lymph one way 3 Types of WBC through the lymphatic system to lymphatic ducts, it gets Macrophage: Phagocytes that alert T-cells to the presence of dumped back into venous supply via lymph nodes foreign substances Red marrow → blood cells Leukocytes → WBC o Largest, longest living Lymph Nodes o Engulf and destroy pathogens Located in neck, armpit, and groin o Found in lymph Small swellings in the lymphatic system where lymph T-Lymphocytes: Directly attack cells infected by viruses and where lymph is filtered, and lymphocytes are formed bacteria Lymph Tissue Helper T, Killer T, Memory T, Suppressor T Tonsils, adenoids, thymus, spleen, Peyer’s patches B-Lymphocyte: Target specific bacteria for destruction Tonsils: Located in pharynx, protects against pathogens Plasma cells: Antibody production entering via mouth or throat. Other Immune Cells Thymus: Maturation chamber for immune T-cells formed in Helper T-cells: Activate B-cells to make antibodies bone marrow Suppressor T-cells: Stop other T-cells when the battle is over Spleen: Cleans blood of dead cells and pathogens Memory T-cells: Remain in blood on alter incase invader Peyer’s Patches: Located in ileum of small intestine, attacks again protects the GI tract from pathogens Killer/Cytotoxic T-cells: Destroy cells infected with a Leukocytes: WBC produced in Red Marrow pathogen, virus, or tumor Antibody Mediated Response Response is to an antigen Cellular Mediated Response Response is to an already infected cell Antigen Foreign particle that stimulates the immune system Lymphocytes Eosinophil Typically, protein on the surface of bacteria, virus, or fungi B-Cells Large, long living phagocyte Antibody T-Cells Defend against multicellular A blood protein that counteracts a specific antigen Natural Killer Cells (NKC) invaders STEPS OF IMMUNE SYSTEM Monocyte Basophil 1. Macrophage engulfs antigen and presents fragments of Macrophage Alerts body of invasion antigen on its surface Dendritic Cell 2. A helper T-cell joins the macrophage Neutrophil 3. Killer/Cytotoxic T-cells and B-cells are activated Short living phagocyte; 4. Killer/Cytotoxic T-cells search and destroy cells presenting responds quickly to invaders the same antigen 5. B-cells differentiate into plasma cells & memory cells INNATE IMMUNE SYSTEM Born with it Nonspecific response Ex: Skin, hair, mucus, earwax, inflammation, interferons, phagocytes ADAPTIVE IMMUNE SYSTEM Responds to specific antigens. Vaccinations or previous encounters Reaction: Cytotoxic T-cells kill pathogens // Prevention: B-cells produce antibodies Activated by antigen and helper T-cells Helper T-cells activate by Antigen Presenting Cells (APC) Naturally Acquired Active Immunity: Exposure to pathogen without immunization Naturally Acquired Passive Immunity: Occurs during pregnancy & during beast feeding o Antibodies are passed from mother to child o Provides protection from infancy to childhood Artificially Acquired Active Immunity: Build Immunity via vaccination Artificially Acquired Passive Immunity: Vaccine given during an outbreak/emergency -Quick, short lived protection - Antibodies come from another person or animal ANATOMY SKELETAL SYSTEM Function Protects internal organs, synthesizes blood and immune cells, stores calcium, phosphate, and lipids 4 Types of bones Long Bones Short Bones Long compact hollow shafts Wider than they are long containing marrow. Ex: Carpals, tarsals Ends are spongy w/ air pockets Ex: Humerus, Ulna, Radius Flat Bones Irregular Bones Not hollow, but contain marrow Nonsymmetrical shape Ex: Sternum, ilium, scapula Ex: Vertebra Osteocyte Maintains bone and can detect stress Histology Osteoblast + Builds bone Hydroxyapatite Collagen give bone flexibility through connective tissue Structure Osteoclast Breaks down bone Mineral resorption Removes [Ca] from bone to enter blood ARTICULATIONS Muscle → Tendon → Bone Bone → Ligament → Bone Hyaline Cartilage: Covers articulating surface of bones and prevents bone on bone grinding Synovial Joint: Contain lubricating synovial fluid Pivot (neck) // Ball & Socket (hip) // Hinge (Knee) BONE DISEASES Osteoporosis: Causes brittle, fragile bones Brittle Bone Disease: Group of Dieses that affect the collagen (defect in the matrix) and results in fragile bones Osteoarthritis: Degenerative joint disease Rheumatoid Arthritis: Progressive disease that causes joint inflammation and pain Notes Osteon: Cylindrical structure that comprise, synthesize, and compact bone. Composed of calcium and phosphate rich hydroxyapatite embedded in collage matrix Periosteum: Fibrinous sheath that covers bone and contains nerve and blood vessels Collagen: Primary structural protein of connective tissue Canaliculi: Small channel or duct in ossified bone Cartilage: Tough, elastic connective tissue found in parts of the body Haversian Canal: Channels in bone that contain BV and nerves Volkmann’s Canal: Channels in bone that transmit BV and communicate with Haversian Canal Lamellae: Layers of bone, tissues or cell walls Lining cells: Flattened bones cells that come from osteoblasts