Chapter 8. Personality

The word comes from the Latin persona, meaning “mask.” Personality An individual’s distinct and relatively enduring pattern of thoughts, feelings, motives, and behaviors. Personality an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting oTrait: aspects of personality that are relatively consistent.  Personality is like fingerprints. It emphasizes how we are unique and are different from each other. Our personalities can be very complicated and many-sided. But that is what makes each one of us special. Greek physician Hippocrates believed that humans could be divided into four temperaments—distinct yet overlapping personality types. These temperaments—are based on "humors," bodily fluids within the microcosm of the body that cause illness if imbalanced. Hippocrates incorporated these beliefs into his medical teachings. While the theory of humorism has been widely discredited and debunked by modern psychology, a temperaments test was used thousands of year ago as the underpinnings of medical diagnoses in Ancient Greece. o Sanguine (cheerful), o melancholic (depressed) o Choleric (irritable) o and Phlegmatic (unemotional). They are basically the four humors. Personality arises from within the individual and remains fairly consistent throughout life.  Human personality includes:  External appearance and behavior or social stimulus value.  Inner awareness of self as a permanent organizing force.  The particular pattern or organization of measurable traits, both “inner and “outer”. HEREDITY FACTORS GENETIC FACTORS genetic factors play a major part in the formation of personality, but not every personality characteristic is originated from genetic makeup. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS SITUATION I interview, Marriage, Picnic, Death  Biological Factors -The study of the biological contributions to personality may be studied under three heads:  Heredity o Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception. Physical stature, facial attractiveness, sex, temperament, muscle composition and reflexes, energy level, and biological rhythms are characteristics that are considered to be inherent from one’s parents. o The heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individual’s personality is the molecular structure of the genes, located in the chromosomes.  Brain o The second biological approach is to concentrate on the role that the brain plays in personality. The psychologists are unable to prove empirically the contribution of the human brain in influencing personality. o Preliminary results from the electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) research give an indication that a better understanding of human personality and behavior might come from the study of the brain.  Biofeedback o Until recently, physiologists and psychologists felt that certain biological functions such as brainwave patterns, gastric and hormonal secretions, and fluctuations in blood pressure and skin temperature were beyond conscious control. o Now some scientists believe that these involuntary functions can be consciously controlled through biofeedback techniques. In BFT, the individual learns the internal rhythms of a particular body process through electronic signals that are feedback from equipment that is wired to the body.  Physical Features o A vital ingredient of the personality, an individual’s external appearance, is biologically determined. The fact that a person is tall or short, fat or skinny, black or white will influence the person’s effect on others and this in turn, will affect the self-concept.  Cultural Factors o Among the factors that influence personality formation is the culture in which we are raised, early conditioning, norms prevailing within the family, friends and social groups and other miscellaneous experiences that impact us. o The culture largely determines attitudes towards independence, aggression, competition, cooperation and a host of other human responses. o According to Paul H Mussen, “each culture expects, and trains, its members to behave in ways that are acceptable to the group. To a marked degree, the child’s cultural group defines the range of experiences and situations he is likely to encounter and the values and personality characteristics that will be reinforced and hence learned.”  Family Factors o Whereas the culture generally prescribes and limits what a person can be taught, it is the family, and later the social group, which selects, interprets and dispenses the culture. Thus, the family probably has the most significant impact on early personality development. o A substantial amount of empirical evidence indicates that the overall home environment created by the parents, in addition to their direct influence, is critical to personality development.  Social Factors o There is increasing recognition given to the role of other relevant persons, groups and especially organizations, which greatly influence an individual’s personality. This is commonly called the socialization process. o Socialization involves the process by which a person acquires, from the enormously wide range of behavioral potentialities that are open to him or her, those that are ultimately synthesized and absorbed. Social Factors Cont. o Socialization starts with the initial contact between a mother and her new infant. After infancy, other members of the immediate family – father, brothers, sisters and close relatives or friends, then the social group: peers, school friends and members of the work group – play influential roles. o Socialization process is especially relevant to organizational behavior because the process is not confined to early childhood, taking place rather throughout one’s life. In particular, the evidence is accumulating that socialization may be one of the best explanations for why employees behave the way they do in today’s organizations.  Situational Factors o Human personality is also influenced by situational factors. The effect of the environment is quite strong. Knowledge, skill and language are obviously acquired and represent important modifications of behavior. o An individual’s personality, while generally stable and consistent, does change in different situations. The varying demands of different situations call forth different aspects of one’s personality. o According to Milgram, “Situation exerts an important press on the individual. It exercises constraints and may provide a push. In certain circumstances, it is not so much the kind of person a man is, as the kind of situation in which he is placed that determines his actions”. We should therefore not look at personality patterns in isolation.  Consistency - people act in the same ways or similar ways in a variety of situations.  Psychological and physiological - Personality is a psychological construct, but it also influenced by biological processes.  Impact behaviors and actions - Personality does not just influence how we move and respond in our environment; it also causes us to act in certain ways.  Multiple expressions - Personality is displayed in more than just behavior. It can also be seen in our thoughts, feelings, close relationships, and other social interactions.  Personality: Refers to the relatively enduring characteristics that differentiate one person from another and that lead people to act in a consistent and predictable manner, both in different situations and over extended periods of time.  It is a distinctive and relatively stable pattern of behaviors, thoughts, motives, and emotions that characterizes an individual.  Personality development is the development of the organized pattern of behaviors and attitudes that makes a person distinctive.  This development occurs due to ongoing interaction of temperament, character and environment. PERSONALITY THEORIES There are a number of different theories about how personality develops. Some of these major perspectives include: Trait theories : Specific dimensions of personality. viewed personality as the result of internal characteristics that are genetically based. Psychodynamic theories: Unconscious motivations. Psychodynamic theories of personality are heavily influenced by the work of Freud, and emphasize the influence of the unconscious on personality. Behavioral theories suggest that personality is a result of interaction between the individual and the environment. Humanist theories: Inner capacity for growth. Emphasize the importance of free will and individual experience in the development of personality. SIGMUND FREUD PIONEERED PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY!  What is the structure and development of personality, according to Sigmund Freud and his successors (i.e. Psychoanalysts)?  According to psychoanalysts, much of behavior is caused by parts of personality which are found in the unconscious and of which we are unaware.  Freud’s 3 levels of awareness/consciousness: o the conscious mind: things we are focusing on. Ideas, thoughts, and feelings of which we are aware. o the preconscious mind: things we are not currently aware of but which we could focus on-material that can be easily brought into awareness o the unconscious mind: that which we are unaware of-material that we can become aware of “only” with great effort and difficulty “if at all” SIGMUND FREUD CONT.  Freud suggested that behavior is determined by the unconscious mind.  Freud’s theory suggest that personality is composed of the id, the ego, and the superego.  id: completely unconscious, present at birth.  The unorganized, inborn part of personality whose purpose is to immediately reduce tensions relating to hunger, aggression, and other primitive impulses.  ego: mostly conscious, develops to deal with reality. The part of the personality that mediates between the demands of the id and the superego  restrains instinctual energy in order to maintain the safety of the individual and to help the person to be a member of society.  superego: the moral center-internalized values of family and society (our conscience)  the rights and wrongs of society and consists of the conscience and the ego-ideal. FREUD’S THEORY: “THE ID”  The id uses the most primitive of thinking process.  The id operates on the Pleasure Principle. Seeks pleasure and avoids pain: “I want what I want NOW!” It is regarded as the reservoir of the libido or "love energy". libido: energy generated by the sexual drive, a life instinct. The id operates completely at an unconscious level.  No direct contact with reality.  It is the dark, inaccessible part of our personality, and can be described only as a contrast to the ego. It is filled with energy reaching it from the instincts, but it has no organization.  Produces no collective will, but only a striving to bring about the satisfaction of the instinctual needs subject to the observance of the pleasure principle.  Developmentally, the Id is anterior to the ego; i.e. it begins, at birth, as an undifferentiated id, part of which then develops into a structured ego. Thus the id "contains everything that is inherited, that is present at birth. The id has 2 major instincts:  Eros: life instinct = motivates people to focus on pleasure-seeking tendencies       Thanatos: death instinct = motivates people to use aggressive urges to destroy.  The ego consists of a conscious faculty for perceiving and dealing intelligently     with reality. operates at all 3 levels of consciousness The ego acts as a mediator between the id and the superego.  The ego is partly conscious.  Deals with the demands of reality.  Makes rational decisions. The ego serves the ID (reality principle) :  The rational part of personality that maintains contact with reality.  Governed by ‘Reality Principle’ “What consequences are there to my behavior?” The ego is the Executive of the personality (secondary process thought)  The ego controls higher mental processes. Reasoning, problem solving.  The ego uses these higher mental processes to help satisfy the urges of the ID.  Superego: the moral part of personality. operates at all 3 levels of      consciousness  contains the internalized rules of parents and society. Superego consists of two parts:  Conscience: “notions of right/wrong.”  GUILT originates in the superego  Ego Ideal: “how we ideally like to be.” Superego: constrains us from gratifying every impulse (e.g., murder) because they are immoral, and not because we might get caught. Superego: partly conscious, partly unconscious. The Super-ego comprises that organized part of the personality structure, mainly but not entirely unconscious, that includes the individual's ego ideals, and the psychic agency that criticizes and prohibits his or her drives, fantasies, feelings, and actions. Freud's theory implies that the super-ego is a symbolic internalization of the father figure and cultural regulations. The super-ego tends to stand in opposition to the desires of the id because of their conflicting objectives, and its aggressiveness towards the ego.  According to Freud, an individual’s feelings, thoughts, and behaviors are the result of the interaction of the id, the superego, and the ego.  The id, the ego, and the superego are continually in conflict with one another.  This conflict generates anxiety.  If the ego did not effectively handle the resulting anxiety, people would be so overwhelmed with anxiety that they would not be able to carry on with the tasks of everyday living.  The ego tries to control anxiety (i.e., to reduce anxiety) through the use of ego defense mechanisms. : DEFENSE MECHANISMS  Definition: An defense mechanism is a psychology tendency that the ego uses to help prevent people from becoming overwhelmed by any conflict (and resulting anxiety) among the id, the ego, and the superego. Defense mechanisms operate at an unconscious level: o We are not aware of them during the time that we are actually using them. o However, we may later become aware of their previous operation and use.  Repression: pushing unacceptable and anxiety-producing thoughts into the unconscious; involves intentional forgetting but not consciously done; repressed material can be memories or unacceptable impulses. o An assault victim cannot recall the details of the attack.  Regression: acting in ways characteristic of earlier life stages/earlier stage of personality. o A young adult, anxious on a trip to his parents/ home, sits in the corner reading comic books, as he often did in grade school.  Reaction formation: replacing an anxiety-producing feeling with its exact opposite, typically going overboard; repressed thoughts appear as mirror opposites.  Rationalization: creating false but believable excuses to justify inappropriate behavior; real motive for behavior is not accepted by ego. o A student cheats on an exam, explaining that cheating is legitimate on an unfair examination.  Denial: claiming and believing that something which is actually true is false. o A person disbelieves that she is age, asserting that “I am not getting older.”  Displacement: redirecting emotional feelings (e.g., anger) to a substitute target; involves directing unacceptable impulses onto a less threatening object/person. o A husband, angry at the way his boss treated him, screams at his children. o Instead of telling your professor what you really think of her, you tailgate and harass a slow driver on your way home from school.  Projection: attributing one’s own unacceptable feelings or beliefs to others; perceiving the external world in terms of one’s own personal conflicts. o An employee at a store, tempted to steal some merchandise, suspects that other employees are stealing.  Sublimation: substitute socially acceptable behavior for unacceptable impulses. o Playing video games instead of getting in a fight.  Fantasy/Daydream: An individual who tries to invoke imagination and imagine that he achieves his goal and desires. Building castle in air is another term used to denote this mechanism.  Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality suggests that personality develops through a series of stages, each of which is associated with a major biological function.  More specifically, Freud theorized that as people age, they pass through several systematic stages of psychosexual development in their personality. Psychosexual Stages of Development are Source of Unconscious Conflicts  The stages of personality development involve critical events that occur in every child’s life.  At each level, there is a conflict between pleasure and reality.  The resolution of this conflict determines personality.  At any stage, “a fixation” can occur:  If needs are either under-gratified or over-gratified, we become fixated at a particular stage.  Each stage also involves an erogenous zone.  “Personality forms during the first few years of life, rooted in unresolved conflicts of early childhood.” Psychosexual Stages  Oral Stage (0-18 months): the oral state is the first period, occurring during the first year of life.  The pleasure- center on the mouth  Sucking & Biting are favorite activities  Anal Stage (18-36 months): next comes the anal stage, lasting from approximately age 1 to age 3.  The focus of pleasure is the anus (bowel/bladder)  Holding it in and letting it go are greatly enjoyed.  Phallic Stage (3 -6 years)  Focus of pleasure is the Genitalia.  Latent Stage (6- 12 years): lasting until puberty.  Sexual impulse is suppressed for learning.  Genital (puberty on): after puberty, people move into the genital stage, a period of mature sexuality.  Freud’s psychoanalytic theory has provoked a number of criticisms. o a lack of supportive scientific data; o the theory’s inadequacy in making predictions; and o its limitations owing to the restricted population on which it is based.  Still, the theory remains popular. o For instance, the Neo-Freudian psychoanalytic theorists built upon Freud’s work, although they placed greater emphasis on the role of the ego and paid greater attention to social factors in determining behavior. CARL JUNG  Jung was a colleague of Freud  He was obsessed with the unconscious mind  But, Jung viewed the unconscious mind differently than Freud  Jung saw personality development as lifelong process of striving to reconcile opposite urges.  Jung’s theory divided the human mind into three parts: o The Ego o The Personal Unconscious o The Collective Unconscious  The Ego-Jung defines this as the unconscious mind  The Personal Unconscious- Anything that is not presently conscious, but can be. It includes both memories that are easily brought to mind and those that have been repressed for some reason. CARL JUNG CONT.  The Collective Unconscious  The most important difference between Jung and Freud is Jung’s notion of the collective (or transpersonal) unconscious. This is his most original and controversial contribution to personality theory. This is a level of unconscious shared with other members of the human species comprising latent memories from our ancestral and evolutionary past. o This refers to our “Psychic Inheritance”:  The reservoir of our experiences as a species, a kind of knowledge we are all born with (the     collective memories of the entire human race). We are not directly conscious of it but it influences all our experiences and behaviors. The human mind has innate characteristics “imprinted” on it as a result of evolution. These universal predispositions stem from our ancestral past. Fear of the dark, snakes, or spiders are good examples. According to Jung, this is why so many cultures have the same symbols recurring in their myths, religion, art, and dreams. The common symbols are referred to as archetypes.  But the best example of the collective unconsciousness . . . North America Scandinavia What three animals is the dragon created from? China CARL JUNG CONT.  Archetypes- The content of the collective unconscious are called "Archetypes"  Our personalities fit into one of many different types, each based on the collective unconscious.  These types are either male (animus), female (anima), or neuter (shadow). Jung believed you could change archetypes in response to major events. o Jung believed humans are not born "clean slates". He thought we came into this world with certain predispositions that cause behavior. o These behaviors were driven by archetypes or archetypal behavior.  Unlike Freud, who believed that individuals are all born bisexual & develop normal sexual attraction through our psychosexual development.  Jung is convinced that everyone has an unconscious opposite gender hidden within him or herself & the role of this archetype is to guide individual toward the perfect mate. Examples of Archetypes Family Archetypes: The Father – Stern, Powerful, Controlling The Mother – Feeding, Nurturing, Soothing The Child – Birth, Beginnings, Salvation Story Archetypes: The Hero – Rescuer, Champion The Maiden – Purity, Desire The Wise Old Man – Knowledge, Guidance The Magician – Mysterious and Powerful The Witch or Sorceress - Dangerous The Trickster – Deceiving and Hidden Animal Archetypes: The Faithful Dog – Unquestioning Loyalty The Enduring Horse – Never Giving Up The Devious Cat – Self Serving CARL JUNG CONT.  The “persona” (or mask) is the outward face we present to the world. It conceals our real self and Jung describes it as the “conformity” archetype. This is the public face or role a person presents to others as someone different to who we really are (like an actor).  Another archetype is the anima/animus o The “anima/animus” is the mirror image of our biological sex, that is, the unconscious feminine side in males and the masculine tendencies in women. o Each sex manifests attitudes and behavior of the other by virtue of centuries of living together. The psyche of a woman contains masculine aspects (the animus archetype), and the psyche of a man contains feminine aspects (the anima archetype).  Next is the shadow. o The shadow is basically the unconscious negative or dark side of one’s personality. o This is the animal side of our personality (like the id in Freud). It is the source of both our creative and destructive energies. o The shadow is like all other archetypes. Is passed down through history and given different names depending on time and culture.  Finally, there is the self o which provides a sense of unity in experience. For Jung, the ultimate aim of every individual is to achieve a state of selfhood (similar to self-actualization). PSYCHOLOGY ADLER’S INDIVIDUAL Basic Tenets/Assumptions of Adlerian theory 1. The one dynamic force behind people’s behavior is the striving for success or superiority. 2. People’s subjective perceptions shape their behavior and personality. 3. Personality is unified and self-consistent. 4. The value of all human activity must be seen from the viewpoint of social interest. 5. The self-consistent personality structure develops into a person’s style of life. 6. Style of life is molded by people’s creative power.  Adler saw striving into superiority as a universal drive to o Adapt o Improve oneself o Master life’s challenges.  Adler reduced all motivation to a single drive which is striving for success or superiority.  Adler’s own childhood –marked by physical deficiencies & strong feelings of competitiveness with his older brother.  Individual psychology holds that everyone begins life with physical deficiencies that activate feelings of inferiority- feelings that motivate a person to strive for either superiority or success.  Psychologically unhealthy individuals strive for personal superiority, whereas psychologically healthy people seek success for all humanity.  Adler limited striving for superiority to those people who strive for personal superiority over others and introduced the term striving for success to describe actions of people who are motivated by highly developed social interest.  Each individual is guided by a final goal.  People strive towards a final goal for o Personal superiority o Success for all humankind  In either case, the final goal is fictional and has no real existence.  The final goal has great significance because it unifies personality and renders all behavior comprehensible.  Each person has the power to create a personalized fictional goal.  The goal is neither genetically nor environmentally determined.  The goal is the product of the creative power that is o People ability to freely shape their behavior o People ability to create their own personality  When children reach 4 or 5 years they can set their final goal.  Infants have an innate drive towards growth, completion, or success.  Because infants are small, incomplete, & weak, they feel inferior and powerless.  To compensate for this deficiency, they set a fictional goal to be big, complete, and strong. ERIK ERIKSON  Emphasizes the conscious mind (ego).  Saw the ego as a source of energy in itself not dependent on the id.  He saw the ego more than a tenuous mediator between id and superego.  He is like Freud, he maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order.  He emphasized more on socialization & how this affects their sense of self. 1. Trust vs. Mistrust  This stage begins at birth continues to approximately 18 months of age.  During this stage, the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live, and looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care.  If the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable and reliable, they will develop a sense of trust which will carry with them to other relationships, and they will be able to feel secure even when threatened.  If these needs are not consistently met, mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety may develop.  If the care has been inconsistent, unpredictable and unreliable, then the infant may develop a sense of mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety.  In this situation the infant will not have confidence in the world around them or in their abilities to influence events. 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt  This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately 3 years.  According to Erikson, children at this stage are focused on developing a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence.  Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will. o If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their increased independence, they become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world.  If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their abilities. Initiative vs. Guilt Occurs between the ages 4 and 5. During the initiative versus guilt stage, children assert themselves more frequently through directing play and other social interaction. These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a child’s life. According to Bee (1992), it is a “time of vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as aggressive." During this period the primary feature involves the child regularly interacting with other children at school. Central to this stage is play, as it provides children with the opportunity to explore their interpersonal skills through initiating activities. Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions. Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop a sense of guilt. The child will often overstep the mark in his forcefulness, and the danger is that the parents will tend to punish the child and restrict his initiatives too much. It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask many questions as his thirst for knowledge grows. If the parents treat the child’s questions as trivial, a nuisance or embarrassing or other aspects of their behavior as threatening then the child may have feelings of guilt for “being a nuisance”. 3.        Industry vs. Inferiority occurs during childhood between the ages of six and twelve (puberty). Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to do sums, to do things on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the child’s life as they teach the child specific skills. It is at this stage that the child’s peer group will gain greater significance and will become a major source of the child’s self-esteem. The child now feels the need to win approval by demonstrating specific competencies that are valued by society and begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments. If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious (competent) and feel confident in their ability to achieve goals. If this initiative is not encouraged, if it is restricted by parents or teacher, then the child begins to feel inferior, doubting his own abilities and therefore may not reach his or her potential. If the child cannot develop the specific skill they feel society is demanding (e.g., being athletic) then they may develop a sense of Inferiority. Some failure may be necessary so that the child can develop some modesty. Again, a balance between competence and modesty is necessary. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of competence. 4.       5. Identity vs. Role Confusion  Occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years. During this stage, adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity, through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals.  During adolescence, the transition from childhood to adulthood is most important. Children are becoming more independent, and begin to look at the future in terms of career, relationships, families, housing, etc. The individual wants to belong to a society and fit in.  This is a major stage of development where the child has to learn the roles he will occupy as an adult. It is during this stage that the adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to find out exactly who he or she is. Erikson suggests that two identities are involved: the sexual and the occupational.  According to Bee (1992), what should happen at the end of this stage is “a reintegrated sense of self, of what one wants to do or be, and of one’s appropriate sex role”. During this stage the body image of the adolescent changes.  Erikson claims that the adolescent may feel uncomfortable about their body for a while until they can adapt and “grow into” the changes. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity.  Fidelity involves being able to commit one's self to others on the basis of accepting others, even when there may be ideological differences. Identity vs. Role Confusion Cont.  During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their own identity based upon the outcome of their explorations. Failure to establish a sense of identity within society ("I don’t know what I want to be when I grow up") can lead to role confusion. Role confusion involves the individual not being sure about themselves or their place in society.  In response to role confusion or identity crisis, an adolescent may begin to experiment with different lifestyles (e.g., work, education or political activities).  Also pressuring someone into an identity can result in rebellion in the form of establishing a negative identity, and in addition to this feeling of unhappiness. 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation  his stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately 18 to 40 yrs. During this stage, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people.  During this stage, we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others. We explore relationships leading toward longer-term commitments with someone other than a family member.  Successful completion of this stage can result in happy relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and care within a relationship.  Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love. 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation  This stage takes place during middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs.)  Psychologically, generativity refers to "making your mark" on the world through creating or nurturing things that will outlast an individual. During middle age individuals experience a need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often having mentees or creating positive changes that will benefit other people.  We give back to society through raising our children, being productive at work, and becoming involved in community activities and organizations. Through generativity we develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture.  Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.  By failing to find a way to contribute, we become stagnant and feel unproductive. These individuals may feel disconnected or uninvolved with their community and with society as a whole. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of care. 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair  This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at death. It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and can develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life.  Individuals who reflect on their life and regret not achieving their goals will experience feelings of bitterness and despair.  As we grow older (65+ yrs.) and become senior citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity and explore life as a retired person.  Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilty about our past, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.  Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to look back on their life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear.  Wise people are not characterized by a continuous state of ego integrity, but they experience both ego integrity and despair. Thus, late life is characterized by both integrity and despair as alternating states that need to be balanced. KAREN HORNEY  Karen Horney (1885- 1952) was another disciple of Freud, who developed a theory that deviated from basic Freudian principles.  Horney adopted a more optimistic view of human life. Emphasizing human growth and self- realization.  She concentrated on early childhood development, and her work formed the basis of much later work in this area.  Horney’s theory of personality placed more emphasis on social relationships and interactions in the formation of personality.  She believed that psychological disorders were caused by disturbed interpersonal relationships during childhood. If a parent’s behavior towards a child is indifferent, discouraging, and erratic the child feels insecure and a feeling of anxiety develops in him/her.  Horney agreed with Freud that childhood is a crucial part of personality formation. However, she believed that it’s the social factors and not the biological factors that influence personality. Thus, there are no universal stages that children go through for personality development, rather the parent-child relationship is the key factor.  According to Horney, safety needs are dominant in childhood. o Safety needs as a higher-level need for security and freedom from fear. o The child’s experiences of either feeling fear or security are decisive forces in determining his/her personality. o parents are responsible for providing security to their children by displaying warmth and affection. They can also induce insecurity in their children by inducing hostility, such as giving preference to one sibling over another, unfair punishment, erratic behavior, false promises, humiliation, and isolation of the child from peers. o Children feel a need to repress the hostility induced by their parents, because of feeling helplessness, need for genuine love, guilty feelings, or fear of parents. This repressed hostility that undermines a child’s safety gets manifested into a condition that Horney calls basic anxiety.  reaction to excessive levels of such anxiety, children adopt one of three styles: o Passive: try to cope by being agreeable and compliant. o Aggressive: they fight to get attention o Withdrawal: they repress their emotions Neurotic needs  Horney from her work with patients concluded that neurotic people have needs that are expressed in behaviors and attitudes toward themselves and others. These needs are grouped into categories called neurotic trends and are as follows:  Movement toward other people- the compliant personality: people with compliant personality show behavior and attitudes that reflect a need to move towards other people. they have an intense and constant need for affection and approval. they also control and manipulate other people particularly their partners. Horney believed that the source of these feelings is the repressed hostility. thus the needs in this neurotic trend are, affection and approval; a dominant partner  Movement against other people- the aggressive personality: behaviors and attitude, associated with this neurotic trend seem to be against people. they are cunning towards others, are confident of their abilities, and drive themselves hard to attain success. the needs in this neurotic tread are: Power, exploitation, prestige, admiration, and achievement  Movement away from other people-the detached personality: people with this neurotic trend are driven to move away from people. they have a desperate need to spend as much time alone as possible. they strive for self-sufficient because as detached personalities they have to rely on their resources which must be well developed.  Horney concluded that all neurotic people follow that neurotic follow all of these trends, but one of them is dominant in the person. For example, the predominantly aggressive person also has some need for compliance and detachment. however, dominant trends determine the behavior, and the other two neurotic trends are actively repressed which leads to additional problems.