Bio Fiveable

Independent - x Dependent- y measuring Describe- what is happening Explaining- why is something happening Identify- one word Justify- prove something CER Analyze- look at situation and give some insight on what is happening Predict- what you think will happen. UNIT 1 - Water is LIFE, Polar molecule. Polar because oxygen is electronegative bcz greedy for electrons. So it is pulling the electrons of the hydrogens. Intermolecular bonding is hydrogen bonding. - Hydrogen bonds cause dissolving and is a solvent dissociating many things like salt. Water is resistant to temperature change. Most organisms may not be endothermic where they have their own regulation and may rely on the environment. - Application of water properties: in plants, metabolic processes, moderates temperature for living organisms. (Specific heat: moderates climates) High heat of vaporization (evaporative cooling helps cool the body down). Ice formation on the surface (insulation of lifes). - Elements of life carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, nitrogen - Hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis - carbs= sugar,monosaccharide, (CH2O)n, don’t always have to be rings. Bonds formed between monomers: covalent. function= energy storage. - STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION THEME - Carbs are highly branched, branched, or stacked (cellulose). Simple carbs won’t be branched or anything look like skittles. - Dehydration synthesis- take water to put together. - Hydrolysis to breakdown macromolecules by adding water to break down sugars when needed. - LIPIDS: glycerol+fatty acid, lot of C-H- hydrophobic. Nonpolar molecules. Difference in saturation determines the structure of lipids. KNOW Phospholipid structure. - PROTEIN: amino acid, r group is structure. Peptide bond. Directional proteins. Sequences of amino acids affect protein folding. 2nd: hydrogen bonds between r groups. 3rd: hydrophobic would get into the middle and hydrophilic outside. Protein folding depends on chemical interactions between r groups. Proteins do all work. - Control: Change in treatment is not due to anything else, to rule out extraneous solutions. Serves to reject the null hypothesis. - Overlapping bars is of no significance. - In proteins, amino acids have directionality. Amino acids have directionality. - Alkyl groups- hydrophobic carbons and hydrogens. Acids are and bases are +. - Changes in dna cause changes in amino acids. UNIT 2 - Probably to be more efficient! - Large surface area and small volume. - Plasma membrane- phospholipid bilayer. Every membrane is different. Smaller gases need to be able to diffuse quickly (oxygen and CO2). hydrophobic tails allow small nonpolar molecules quickly. - Simple Diffusion- Passive: Small, NP, with concentration gradient - Facilitated Diffusion- Passive: Small, Polar molecules, with the concentration gradient - Active Transport: Bulky molecules and molecules traveling against the gradient. Needs energy! Na, K pump - Endo/Exocytosis- Active (energy) Moving bulky items or large quantities into or out of the cell. - Movement of Water: Aquaporin is used when water is net movement. - Plants always like to be in hypotonic solutions. Cell wall prevents it from bursting. - Osmolarity is the solute concentration. - Endosymbiont theory- cell compartmentalization. Presence of organelles to separate inside and outside. Ancestral eukaryotes took in a prokaryote and could take in mitochondria and or chloroplast. Infoldings in plasma membranes start it all. Eukaryotes are more complex which needs compartmentalization. UNIT 3 - Enzymes are proteins. Enzyme has a perfect match with substrate. So if the active site is not folded properly, then the enzyme is dysfunctional. Active site is on the enzyme where the substrate bonds. - Enzyme Catalysis helps reactions happen. Enzymes speed up the rate of a reaction. Enzymes lower the energy required for a reaction by reacting with the substrate. - Once enzymes make products, enzymes are unchanged and can be reused or else waste of energy. - Temperature = kinetic energy, more collisions, and induced fit. Depending on enzyme denaturation can occur. All enzymes have an optimum temperature. - Inhibitors are changes to the environment as well. Competitive inhibitors will slow down enzymes because they compete for the active site. Presence of competitive inhibitors doesn’t mean no products will be made. It will slow the reaction. - Noncompetitive inhibitor- still affects the reaction. So binds in the allosteric site where the noncompetitive inhibitor binds, and changes the shape of the active site. - Reaches a saturation point to level off so enzymes are fully saturated and could be like a limiting reagent, or if products use feedback inhibition. - All living things need energy. The products and reactants of cellular functions are used in other reactions. - Photosynthesis evolved in prokaryotic cells. Naturally redox reaction. - Photosynthesis evolution not just for plants for things that have pigments, or chloroplast. CYANOBACTERIA (prokaryotes) is very ancestral. Photosynthesis could have started with them. Photosynthetic bacteria were responsible for the oxygen in the atmosphere. The bacteria is unicellular and archaic. This trait is still conserved. Protists like green algae can do this as well. All these organisms with similar pigment (chlorophyll) so this has been conserved because it is good for survival. - Light dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid filled with chlorophyll. Very complex series of coordinated reaction pathways that capture energy present as photons and yield ATP and NADPH. Putting electrons onto these electron carriers powering production of organic molecules and ATP is needed as well. Oxygen is also released. - Protons pumped into thylakoid membranes. - Calvin cycle- enzyme called rubisco helps fix carbon. Needs a lot of ATP and NADP+ resulting 3C sugar. Cycle goes through twice. - All living things can do cellular respiration. Glycolysis in cytoplasm. Kreb’s cycle in the matrix. ETC in the inner membrane. Electrons carried via NADH and FADH2. UNIT 4 - Endocrine signaling- hormone and long travel. These molecules are mostly made of steroids, and lipids to sustain throughout. Regulation of blood sugar. Insulin- too much sugar in blood so cells should take the sugar. Glucagon stimulates the liver and cells to release glucose. - Autocrine signaling- self signaling like apoptosis. - Paracrine signaling- is an evolutionary way that bacteria signal each other. - Signal transduction- reception, transduction, and response. Kinases are responsible for phosphorylating. - Feedback mechanisms- negative feedback- regulation of insulin: as stimulus increases, reaction corrects back to baseline. Important to maintain homeostasis. Temp. regulation. - Positive feedback- as stimulus increases, reaction increases as well, after baby stops pushing against cervix, then oxytocin stops. - Cell cycle has regulation. Regulated by cyclin CDK complexes. If you get a signal, then it activates cyclin, to activate the cyclin cdk complex which activates the checkpoint itself. These complexes are regulated by many enzymes and signal transduction to push past the checkpoint. UNIT 5 mitosis - somatic cells for repair and cell growth Meiosis- sex cells/ gametes Diploid is 2 versions of each chromosome Independent assortment-homochrom can be in whatever pattern Crossing over- where chromosomes switch genes Random fertilization- which sperm fertilizes which egg Haploid- means we only have 1 version of each chromosome Variation of genes on viruses to make sure they are not extinct. Genes produce proteins which produce the pigment/ whatever. The proteins that they are producing in the dominant one allele have enough active allele to produce enough pigment. There is not enough protein that creates pigment in recessive which lacks the protein to make purple therefore comes off in a white color. 1st and 2nd offspring = X Non mendelian genetics- more complex than dominant and recessive. X- Linked- more risk for boys, mitochondrial- mother only. Linked genes- on the same chromosome in proximity. UNIT 6 - Semiconservative decreases the number of errors because we are keeping a template of the parent reducing # of mutations. - Antiparallel because this polymerase can only go in one direction. It reads in 3 to 5 so it makes it 5 to 3. - 5’ cap seals off the end and finds its way to the ribosome. - Poly A tails protect both ends so the inside part is not affected by enzymes both are there for protection and leaving the nucleus. - Alternative Splicing- cut out the introns to keep IN NUCLEUS and exons stay. Cutting out different sections producing diff. Proteins. - Prokaryotes have different ribosomal subunits and don’t have all these. - Ribosomes always produce proteins no matter where they are. - Gene Regulation- IN prokaryotes. *NEG REG* Inducible OperonLac: Operon is a group of genes which have the same purpose. It is naturally normally off. But you can turn on when you need it. Repressor present= no RNA Transcription. The lactose molec itself acts as an inducer and mutates the repressor by bending it a bit. So the enzyme can transcribe the enzyme lactase. - Repressible operons. Naturally on. In its natural state it is on and always producing proteins. In intestines and bacteria making trp. Trp molecules act as a corepressor. - We have a lot of gene regulations more complex than the ones in prokaryotes. ALLLL TO CONSERVE ENERGY. - Mutations- point mutations, and frameshift mutations. Silent mutation still leads to the same amino acid even though nucleotides have changed. Missense change is changing the amino acid affecting the protein folding. - FRAMESHIFT MUTATIONS-DETRIMENTAL. Whole thing is messed up after insertion bcz reading in groups of 3. Same goes to deletion in which everything after is messed. - Mutations create genetic variation. Passing on to more offspring.