Content Category 6B Making Sense of the Environment

Content Category 6B: Making sense of the environment Attention (PSY) Selective attention Selective Attention – process by which one input is attended to and the rest are tuned out Experiment – Dichotic listening setup - Person wears headphones, different dialogue in each ear. He is told to ignore one of the dialogues (from the unattended channel) and pay attention to the other (from the attended channel). He will remember some of the message from the attended ear but lose almost everything from the unattended ear. “Shadowing the attended ear”- repeat information right after it is presented Donald Broadbent – thought of the brain as a processing system with a limited capacity and sought to map out the steps that went into creating memories from raw sensory data - Broadbent Filter Model of Selective Attention – inputs from environment first enter a sensory buffer. One of these inputs is then selected and filtered based on physical characteristics of the input (modality). This theoretical filter is designed to keep us from becoming overloaded with information. Other info stays in the sensory buffer briefly, but then quickly decays. It then goes to higher level processing, into the working memory. Only attended information passes through the filter. Cocktail party effect – information of personal importance from previously unattended channels catches our attention Attempts to explain Cocktail Effect, since Broadbent’s model could not: Anne Treisman’s Attentuation Model – attempts to account for the cocktail party effect. She believed that rather than a filter, the mind has an attenuator, which works like a volume knob—it “turns down” the unattended sensory input, rather than eliminating it. Selective Priming – suggests that people can be selectively primed to observe something, either by encountering it frequently or by having an expectation implicit memory Visual Attention: Spotlight Model – explains visual attention: the spotlight is a beam that can shine anywhere within an individual’s visual field. This beam describes the movement of attention, not the movement of the eyes. Shifts in attention actually precede the corresponding eye movements. Binding Problem – the problem of how all the different aspects of an object are assembled together and related to a single object, rather than something else in the visual field. Visual attention is the solution to this problem. If we focus on a particular object, then the feature detectors’ input of shape, color, etc. will all be related to the object being attended to. It has been found that when people are distracted while viewing two items, they may have issues with binding—the color of one item may be attributed to the other. Divided attention Divided Attention – concerns when and if we are able to perform multiple tasks simultaneously Resource model of attention – says that we have a limited pool of resources on which to draw when performing tasks, both modalityspecific resources and general resources. If the resources required to perform multiple tasks simultaneously exceeds the available resources to do so, then the tasks cannot be accomplished at the same time. Three factors associated with performance on multi-tasking: • • • Task Similarity – two tasks that involve using the same modality for processing (listening to a radio while trying to write a paper—they both use verbal input/output) results in difficulty. Task Difficulty – If a task is more difficult, it requires more resources in general and would be hard to do simultaneously with another task without passing resource capacity Task Practice – practice helps; it diminishes task resource demand so that we may free up those resources to allow for multitasking (experienced driver does not have trouble changing radio station while driving, while a novice might) Cognition (PSY) Information-processing model Information-Processing Models – focuses on what happens in the human mind, tries to view it as a computer processor. Has a few basic assumptions: information is taken in from the environment and processed through a series of steps including attention, perception, and storage into memory. Along the way, information is systematically transformed. Alan Baddeley’s model – sought to better define short-term memory, which he renamed working memory • Four components of working memory: o Phonological loop – allows us to repeat verbal information to help us remember it ▪ this is what you use to remember a phone number that someone tells you when you have nothing with which to write it down ▪ like auditory o Visuospatial sketchpad – serves a similar purpose for visuospatial information through the use of mental images o Episodic buffer – integrates info from phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad with a sense of time, and to interface with long-term memory stores ▪ For example, if a man sees a station wagon much like the one his father used to drive, he is able to make this connection through the interaction between his memory of his father’s car and his current visual experience in the episodic buffer o Central executive – overseer of the entire process, orchestrates the process by shifting and dividing attention Cognitive development • Piaget’s stages of cognitive development Jean Piaget – one of the first developmental psychologists who studied cognitive development in children; argued against the prevailing belief that children were much like miniature adults in their thought processes and abilities. He thought that the process of cognitive development involved forming schemas, or mental frameworks that shape and are shaped by our experience. As we encounter new experiences, we either assimilate those experiences by conforming them into our existing schemas or we accommodate by adjusting our schemas to take into account the new experiences. For example, if a young girl thinks that there is a monster under her bed and her parents turn on the light to show that there is none, she can either assimilate this experience by believing that the monster exists but runs away from light, or accommodate her schema by agreeing that there must be no monster. Piaget’s theory: Four Developmental Stages: • Sensorimotor Stage: birth to roughly age 2 – babies experience the world through their senses and movement, such as looking and touching. They learn about object permanence—the understanding that things continue to exist when they are out of sight. Also, they demonstrate stranger anxiety—distress when confronted with an unfamiliar person. • Preoperational Stage: roughly age 2-7. Children learn that things can be represented through symbols, like words and images. They lack logical reasoning and are egocentric. • Concrete Operational Stage: roughly age 7 to 11. Children learn to think logically. Learn principle of Conservation (same volume of water even if in different containers) • Formal Operational Stage: roughly from age 12 to adulthood. Learn abstract reasoning and moral reasoning. • Think about it. Babies from 0-2 want stuff like milk or blankets, meaning that they know that these exist even if they can’t see them—hence, object permanence. Also, they fear people that aren’t their mother or father—stranger anxiety. Your typical 2-7 year old preschooler / kindergartener wants everything for him or herself, and they aren’t logical. However, they learn to speak at this stage, demonstrating their understanding of symbols. Elementary schoolers from 7-11 are at least smart enough to think rather logically (if it’s straightforward), and they understand conservation (just remember that this is stage 3). 12 and beyond learn to think in abstracts, and are more moral (think Kohlberg’s moral stages.) • Cognitive changes in late adulthood Cognitive Changes in Late Adulthood • Elderly show memory declines in recall (without clues), but recognition seems to be intact • Time-based tasks can be challenging, like remembering to take medication 3 times a day • Older adults have slower information-processing abilities, like slower reaction times and speech • No decline in crystallized intelligence, but a decline in fluid intelligence • Role of culture in cognitive development The role of Culture in Cognitive Development • complex, reciprocal relationship • Ex: Different languages results in different ways of thinking • Influence of heredity and environment on cognitive development Influence of Heredity and Environment on Cognitive Development • Genetics provides the biological predispositions, or raw material that an individual has. • Sociocultural influences then help mold and channel this potential into the development of particular capabilities. o Amount and quality of schooling and the richness of the child’s environment can heavily influence performance on tests of cognitive functioning. • Language – Noam Chomsky convincingly argues that children could not learn the wealth of vocabulary that they quickly acquire simply through environmental influence; genetics and heredity are also involved. At the same time, the quality of reading education influences a child’s ability to acquire this skill. Biological factors that affect cognition (PSY, BIO) Biological Factors that Affect Cognition • Frontal lobes play a role in executive functions, hippocampus is involved in the formation of new memories. In short, the interconnectivity of various regions in the brain underlies our cognitive skills. Problem solving and decision making • Types of problem solving Problem Solving and Decision Making • Trial and error • Algorithm – step by step procedure • heuristics – mental shortcuts • insight – sudden thought in the shower • Barriers to effective problem solving Barriers to Effective Problem Solving • Confirmation Bias – tendency to search only for information that confirms our preconceived thinking, rather than information that might not support it. • Confirmation bias – tendency to favor information that confirms existing beliefs. Involves biases in the search for information and in the interpretation of evidence. Is stronger for emotionally charged topics • Fixation – inability to see the problem from a fresh perspective o Results from the existence of a mental set – a tendency to fixate on solutions that worked in the past, even though they may not apply in the current situation o functional fixedness – tendency to perceive the functions of objects as fixed and unchanging • • Approaches to problem solving Heuristics and biases (e.g., overconfidence, belief perseverance) • Availability Heuristic – can lead to errors in judgment, due to our reliance on our memory of specific, easily-recalled events—based more on specific examples, how readily particular examples come to mind) – Beethoven vs Haydn Representativeness Heuristic – generalizations about people and events (people are rude to you every time you went to Post Office you conclude that the post office has rude people Belief bias – tendency to judge arguments based on what one believes about their conclusions rather than on whether they use sound logic—we accept conclusions that fit with our beliefs o Doctor killing his wife vs drug dealer killing his wife – much more inclined to readily believe that drug dealer killed his wife Belief perseverance – tendency to cling to beliefs despite contradictory evidence Overconfidence – overestimation of the accuracy of knowledge and judgements Framing – consumers more likely to buy meat advertised as 75% lean than labeled 25% fat • • • • • Intellectual functioning • Theories of intelligence • • • • • Theories: Francis Galton – first proposed a theory of general intelligence in the mid-1800s. Believed intelligence had a strong biological basis and could be quantified by testing certain cognitive tasks. Argued that intelligence is genetically determined. Alfred Binet – early 1900s, administered intelligence tests to schoolchildren in France, with the goal of developing a measure to determine who needed special education. His test was revised by a psychologist at Stanford and renamed the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, better known as IQ. Charles Spearman – early 1900s, first coined the term general intelligence (g). Believed that intelligence could be strictly quantified through cognitive tests, and those who possessed high general intelligence could do well on lots of different measures of cognitive ability Raymond Cattell – mid 20th century, proposed two types of intelligence: fluid (Gf, ability to think on your feet) and crystallized (recall facts and apply learned information). • Howard Gardner – 1980s, put forth a theory on multiple intelligences: logical, linguistic, spatial, musical, kinesthetic, naturalist, intrapersonal and interpersonal • Influence of heredity and environment on intelligence • • Behavioral Genetics – attempts to determine the role of inheritance in behavioral traits Twin studies – compare traits in monozygotic and dizygotic twins. If identical twins share the phenotype more than fraternal twins (which is the case for most traits), genes likely play an important role Adoption Studies – creates two groups: genetic relatives and environmental relatives. Adopted individuals can be compared with both groups to determine if they are more similar to their genetic relatives or their environmental relatives. Adopted children have personalities more similar to their biological parents than their adopted parents. Heritability does not pertain to an individual, but rather to how two individuals differ; for example, the heritability of intelligence is 50%. This does not mean that genes are responsible for 50% of your intelligence, but rather is responsible for 50% of the difference between your intelligence and someone else’s. Transgenesis – introduction of an outside gene to alter genotype while controlling for environment Genes and environment work together; not only do genes code for proteins, but they also respond to the environment Studies of twins, family members, and adopted children indicate that there is a significant heritability of intelligence. Scores on intelligence tests taken by identical twins correlate highly, while those of adopted children more closely resemble scores of their birth parents rather than their adoptive parents. However, malnutrition, sensory deprivation, and social isolation can affect normal brain development • • • • • • • Variations in intellectual ability Consciousness (PSY) States of consciousness • Alertness (PSY, BIO) • • Consciousness – awareness that we have of ourselves, our internal states, and the environment Alertness and arousal are controlled by structure within the brainstem. These structures are known as the reticular formation. • Sleep o Stages of sleep • Polysomnography (PSG) – multimodal technique to measure physiological processes during sleep. Includes electroencephalogram (EEG—measures of electrical impulses in brain), electromyogram (EMG—measures of skeletal muscle movements), electrooculogram (EOG—measure of eye movement) When a person is awake, but sleepy and relaxed, EEG shows alpha waves—low amplitudes and high frequencies—first indicators that person is ready to drift off. Stage-1 sleep—non-REM. EEG is dominated by theta waves—low to moderate intensity, intermediate frequency. EOG measures slow rolling eye movements and EMG measures moderate activity. Person becomes less responsive to stimuli and has fleeting thoughts Stage 2 Sleep – Denoted by change to two distinct wave patterns on EEG. Theta waves are intermixed with two patterns: Kcomplexes and sleep spindles. K-complex is half-second long and is large and slow, occurring as a single wave amongst theta waves. Sleep spindles are bursts of waves, with a frequency of 12-14 Hz and are moderately intense. Like Kcomplexes, do not last long: 0.5-1.5 seconds. No eye movement, EMG measures moderate activity. Decreased heart rate, respiration, and temperature. Stage 3 and Stage 4 sleep – a person transitions into slow wave deep sleep. Delta waves – high amplitude, low frequency. Signify the deepest level of sleep. Stage 4 experiences more delta waves than stage 3. No eye movement, moderate muscle movement. Heart rate and digestion slow, growth hormones secreted. REM sleep – final stage, characterized by bursts of quick eye movements. EEG measures waves that most resemble the beta waves seen in individuals when awake. However, these waves are sawtooth with low intensity and variable frequency, more jagged in appearance than beta waves. Almost no skeletal muscle movement. Called “Paradoxical sleep”—person physiologically appears to be awake, but they are pretty much paralyzed. • • • • • o Sleep cycles and changes to sleep cycles • It is possible to jump between various stages while sleeping. Average cycle is about 90 minutes. REM sleep are shortest early in the night, get longer as the night progresses. Deep sleep is longest early in the night and get less frequent. Infants spend much more time in REM, and need more sleep. We require less and less sleep as we age. • Circadian Rhythms – biological waxing and waning of alertness over the 24 hour day. Most people feel alert mid-morning, experience a dip in energy early afternoon, and then feel alert again in the early evening. Exposure to light stimulates a nerve pathway from the retina to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus. The SCN signals other parts of the o Sleep and circadian rhythms (PSY, BIO) brain, and is essentially our internal clock. Melatonin is a hormone made by the pineal gland. Darkness causes the SCN to signal the pineal gland to start producing melatonin, making you feel tired. o Dreaming • Dreaming usually occurs during the REM stage. Missing REM sleep for one night results in an increase in REM sleep later to make up for it—REM rebound. Freud believe that plotlines of dreams (manifest content) were symbolic versions of underlying latent content—unconscious drives and wishes. Other theories found that dreaming can improve learning and problem solving. The activation-synthesis theory suggests that dreams are byproducts of brain activation during REM sleep, and dreams aren’t that purposeful. o Sleep–wake disorders Sleep Disorders Dyssomnias – abnormalities in the amount, quality, or timing of sleep. • Insomnia – most common sleep disorder, characterized by difficulty falling or staying asleep • Narcolepsy – periodic, overwhelming sleepiness during waking periods that usually last 5 minutes. Caused by a dysfunction in the region of the hypothalamus that produces the neurotransmitter hypocretin. • Sleep apnea – causes people to intermittently stop breathing during sleep. Can repeat hundreds of times a night. Parasomnias – abnormal behaviors that occur during sleep. Tends to appear more in children. • Somnambulism – sleepwalking. Tends to occur during slow wave sleep (Stage 3), usually during first third of the night. • Night terrors – also occur during Stage 3 (unlike nightmares, which occur during REM). Person experiencing night terror may sit up or walk around, babble, and appear terrified, although none of this is recalled in the morning. • Hypnosis and meditation Hypnotism – social interaction in which hypnotist has a subject focus attention on what is said, relax and feel tired, and accept suggestions easily. Can promote recall of memories, but patient is also susceptible to creating false memories. Cannot force people to do extreme things against their will, such as murder. It works not by preventing sensory input, but by blocking attention to those sensory inputs • Dissociation theory – suggests that hypnotism is an extreme form of divided consciousness—behaviors can occur on autopilot. o Have you ever driven somewhwere and not recalled anything about the actual drive? Hypnotism may be an extended form of this normal dissociation • Social Influence theory – people do and report what’s expected of them. They are not consciously faking it, but are like actors who get caught up in their roles and thus behave in ways that fit them. Meditation – may involve focusing intensely on one object of attention, such as breathing, or may broaden their attention and be aware of multiple stimuli. Has been successfully used to manage pain, stress, and anxiety disorders. Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) is a protocol commonly used in the medical setting to help alleviate stress. Consciousness-altering drugs • Types of consciousness-altering drugs and their effects on the nervous system and behavior Consciousness-altering Drugs Depressants – work by slowing down neural activity • Alcohol – people more likely to be impulsive and hyperactive, but it is the result of slowing of brain activity related to judgement and inhibition. Affects skilled motor performance (cerebellum). Excessive drinking can lead to memory blackouts for recent memories. Also suppresses REM sleep. Overdose can cause death by depressing the respiratory control centers in the medulla to the point by breathing ceases. Works by stimulating GABA and dopamine systems. GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter and is associated with reduced anxiety, while dopamine leads to the feeling of minor euphoria. • Barbiturates (tranquilizers) – depress the sympathetic nervous system. Often prescribes as sleep aids. Dangerous in combination with alcohol and prone to overdose. • Opiates – derivatives of opium (like morphine and heroin). Depress neural functioning. Temporarily reduce pain by mimicking the brain’s own pain relievers (endorphins. Pain is replaced with a blissful feeling. Prolonged use leads the brain to stop producing endorphins, leading to painful withdrawal. Stimulants – include caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, and amphetamines (“speed”). Typically work by either increasing the release of neurotransmitter, reducing the reuptake of neurotransmitter, or both. Overall affect is to speed up body functions, resulting in increased energy, respiratory rate, heart rate, and pupil dilation. Cocaine works by causing a “rush,” a release of the brain’s supply of neurotransmitters including dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine. Creates a brief period of intense pleasure, followed by a depressive crash. MDMA is a stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Triggers release of dopamine and serotonin, as well as blocking serotonin reabsorption. Causes emotional elevation, but long-term effects include damage to serotonin-producing neurons. Hallucinogens – also known as psychedelics, distort perceptions in absence of any sensory input. Include LSD and marijuana. Marijuana relaxes and disinhibits, but also acts as a hallucinogen by amplifying sensory perceptions. lowest risk of dependence • Drug addiction and the reward pathway in the brain • • Drug Addiction – compulsion to use a drug repeatedly. Psychological dependence – often associated with the use of a drug in response to painful emotions related to depression or anxiety. • • • Physical dependence – evidenced by withdrawal, an uncomfortable and often physically painful experience without use of drug. Addiction is biologically based. Enjoyable behaviors produce activity in dopamine circuits in the brain, most notably in the nucleus accumbens, the pleasure center of the brain. Many addictive drugs share the characteristic of stimulating the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens. Craving symptoms (strong desire to ingest a drug) Memory (PSY) Encoding • Process of encoding information • Three main stages of memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval • • Encoding – process of transferring sensory information into our memory system Serial Position Effect – occurs when someone attempts to memorize a series, such as a list of words. In an immediate recall condition, the individual is more likely to recall the first and last items on the list—known as the primacy effect and the recency effect. First items may be more easily recalled because they had the most time to be encoded and transferred to longterm memory. Last items may be more easily recalled because they may still be in the phonological loop, and thus may be readily available. When the individual is asked to recall the list at a later point, the individual tends to remember only the first items well. • Processes that aid in encoding memories • • • • • • • • Processes that Aid in Encoding Memories Mnemonic – any technique for improving retention and retrieval of information from memory. Rehearsal – use of the phonological loop Chunking – strategy in which information to be remembered is organized into discrete groups of data. Hierarchies for organization – organizing into different hierarchies and groups Depth of processing – Information that is thought about at a deeper level is better remembered. Use of Short words of phrases that represent longer strings of information. Dual Coding Hypothesis – indicates that it is easier to remember words with associated images than memorizing either words or images alone Method of Loci – imagining moving through a familiar place, and in each place, leave a visual representation of a topic to be remembered. Self-reference effect – it is easier to remember things that are personally relevant—can be linked to existing memories. • • Storage • Types of memory storage (e.g., sensory, working, long-term) Types of Memory Storage Sensory Memory – initial recording of sensory information in the memory system—very brief snapshot that quickly decays • Iconic Memory – brief photographic memory for visual information, which decays in a few tenths of a second • Echoic memory – memory for sound, which lasts for about 3-4 seconds. • Information from sensory memory decays rapidly if not passed through Broadbent’s filter into short-term memory o So sensory memory is before the filter (which is before higher level processing and working memory), before attention is given to it Short-term memory – limited in duration and capacity. Capacity for adult is around seven items, plus or minus 2. Even chunking is still subject to this limit of about seven chunks. Information in short-term memory is retained only for about 20 seconds, unless it is actively processed so that it can be transferred into long-term memory Long-term memory is information that is retained sometimes indefinitely; it is believed to have an infinite capacity Short-term memory is different from working memory in that it is strongly correlated with the hippocampus, and is where new information sought to be remembered resides temporarily and is then encoded to long-term memory or forgotten. Working memory, which is strongly correlated with the prefrontal cortex, is a storage bin used to hold memories (short or long term) that are needed at a particular moment in order to process information or solve a problem. Implicit/procedural memory refers to conditioned associations and knowledge of how to do something; also called nondeclarative memory; is not conscious and may be difficult to vocalize; is most commonly associated with the basal ganglia, cerebellum – receives input from the cortex and stores it, but does not send that information back to the cortex for conscious awareness • Also associated with priming Explicit/Declarative memory – involves being able to declare or voice what is known. Explaining a concept involves explicit memory, while not having practiced it indicates a lack of implicit memory. • Semantic memory – memory for factual information, such as the capital of England • Episodic memory – autobiographical memory for information of personal importance, such as the situation surrounding a first kiss • • • • Brain structures involved in memory include the hippocampus, cerebellum, and amygdala. Hippocampus – necessary for the encoding of new explicit memories, associated with long-term memories o Patients with hippocampal damage may not have declarative memory for a skill they have recently learned, yet may be able to demonstrate the skill o infantile amnesia – implicit memories that infants make are retained indefinitely, but explicit memories are not retained beyond age 4 (hippocampus is not fully developed) Cerebellum – involved in learning skills and conditioned associations (implicit memory) Amygdala – involved in associating emotion with memories, particularly negative memories. • Semantic networks and spreading activation • • Semantic Networks and Spreading Activation It is believed that information is stored in long-term memory as an organized network. In this network exist individual ideas called nodes, which can be thought of like cities on a map. Connecting these nodes are associations, which are like roads connecting the cities. The strength of an association is related to how frequently and how deeply the connection is made. Retrieval of information improves if there are more and stronger connections to an idea. A node does not become activated until it receives input signals from its neighbors that are strong enough to reach a response threshold. The effect of input signals is cumulative: the response threshold is reached by the summation of input signals from multiple nodes. Once the response threshold is reached, the node “fires” and sends a stimulus to all of its neighbors, contributing to their activation. In this way, the activation of a few nodes can lead to a pattern of activation within the network that spreads onward—this is called spreading activation. This explains why “hints” may be helpful – they serve to activate nodes that are closely connected to the node being sought after, which may therefore contribute to that node’s activation. • Retrieval • Recall, recognition, and relearning • • • • Retreival Recall – ability to retrieve information o Free Recall – involves retrieving the item “out of thin air” o Cued Recall – involves retrieving the information when provided with a cue Recognition – involves identifying specific information from a set of information that is presented Relearning – involves the process of learning material that was originally learned. Once we have learned and forgotten something, we are able to relearn it more quickly than when it was originally learned. • Retrieval cues • • Retrieval Cues – provide reminders of information Prior activation of closely related nodes and associations is called priming, which often occurs without our awareness. • The role of emotion in retrieving memories (PSY, BIO) • • Role of Emotion in Retrieving Memories Mood dependent memory – phenomenon that describes that what we learn in one state is most easily recalled when we are once again in that emotional state. Thus, when a person is depressed, events in the past that were sad are more likely to emerge to the forefront of his mind. • Processes that aid retrieval • Remembering information is achieved through the process of paying attention, encoding, retaining information (storage), and finally retrieval. Failure along any step of this process can cause forgetting. Forgetting • Aging and memory • • • • • Aging and Memory Decline in memory is influenced by how active the person is: increased activity (both physical and mental) is a protective factor against neuronal atrophy. Also, due to having a more extensive memory network, retrieval can also become trickier with time. They may have trouble with prospective memory, remembering to do things in the future. The ability to encode new memories of events or facts and working memory shows decline Episodic memory is especially impaired in normal aging; some types of short-term memory are also impaired Source information also suffers • Memory dysfunctions (e.g., Alzheimer’s disease, Korsakoff’s syndrome) • • • • Memory Dysfunctions Anterograde amnesia – caused by damage to the hippocampus, marked by an inability to encode new memories Retrograde amnesia – inability to recall information that was previously encoded, also caused by damage to hippocampus Alzheimer’s – may involve an inability to manufacture enough of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which results in, among other things, neuronal death in the hippocampus. Korsakoff’s syndrome – chronic memory disorder caused by severe deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B-1) o Most commonly caused by alcohol misuse • o o o Thiamine helps brain cells produce energy from sugar. When levels fall too low, brain cells cannot generate enough energy to function properly. As a result, Korsakoff syndrome may develop causes problems learning new information, inability to remember recent events and long-term memory gaps Memory problems may be strikingly severe while other thinking and social skills are relatively unaffected ▪ for example, individuals may seem to carry on a coherent conversation, but moment later be unable to recall that the conversation took place ▪ Those with Korsakoff syndrome may “confabulate,” or make up, information they can’t remember. They are not “lying” but may actually believe their invented explanations • Decay • Memory decay results in a failure to retain stored information. Does not happen in a linear fashion —the forgetting curve indicates that the longer the retention interval, or the time since the information was learned, the more information will be forgotten, with the most forgetting occurring rapidly in the first few days before leveling off. It is possible that brain cells involved in the memory may die off, or perhaps the associations among memories need to be refreshed in order not to weaken. • Interference • • Interference – can result in a failure to retrieve information that is in storage. Proactive interference – happens when information previously learned interferes with the ability to recall information learned later. For example, remembering where you had parked your car in a parking garage will be more difficult once you have parked in that parking garage for months in different locations. Retroactive interference – happens when newly learned information interferes with the recall of information learned previously. For example, someone who has moved frequently may find that learning new addresses and directions interferes with his ability to remember old addresses and directions Positive transfer – when old information facilitates the learning of new information. For example, learning how to play football may make it easier for someone to learn how to play rugby. • • • Memory construction and source monitoring • • Memory Construction and Source Monitoring Our memories are far from being perfect snapshots of actual experience. Sometimes the information that we retrieve is based more on schema—a mental blueprint containing common aspects of some part of the world (if asked to describe what your 4th grade classroom looked like, you may remember chalkboard, chalk, desks, etc, based on your schema for such a classroom). Thus, we tend to “fill in the blanks” when constructing memories. We may also unknowingly alter details. After people are exposed to subtle misinformation, they are usually susceptible to the misinformation effect, a tendency to misremember. Individuals may also misremember when asked to repeatedly imagine nonexistent actions and events —simply repeatedly imagining that one did something can create false memories for an event. When recalling information, people are also susceptible to forgetting one particular fact—the information’s source. This is an error in source monitoring. For example, you may recognize someone, but have no idea where you have seen him before. Flashbulb memory - subjectively vivid, compelling memories of details associated with reception of news about emotionally arousing events • Changes in synaptic connections underlie memory and learning (PSY, BIO) • Neural plasticity • • • • Changes in synaptic connections underlie memory and learning. The process of forming memories involves electrical impulses sent through brain circuits. Somehow, these impulses leave permanent neural traces that are physical representations of information. Neural plasticity – refers to the malleability of the brain’s pathways and synapses based on behavior, the environment, and neural processes. For example, shortly after someone becomes blind, neurons devoted to vision take on different roles, improving other sensory perception. Neurogenesis—the birth of new neurons, has been found to occur to a small extent in the hippocampus and cerebellum. Previously thought impossible. Neural nets – patterns of activation. Nearby neurons that fire impulses simultaneously form associations with each other. If any part of the neural net is activated, a memory may be recalled. The process of learning and memory through the lifetime does not involve enlarging of the brain or gaining of neurons, but rather involves increased interconnectivity of the brain through increasing the synapses between existing neurons. • • Memory and learning Long-term potentiation o Persistent strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity Language (PSY) • Theories of language development (e.g., learning, Nativist, Interactionist) • Behaviorists who argue that language is just another example of conditioned behavior are empiricist in their approach, believing that the study of psychology should focus on directly observable environmental factors as opposed to abstract mental states. Nativists, who argue that language is a human ability prewired into the brain, are rationalist in their • • • • • approach—they hold that certain ideas and capabilities cannot come from experience and must be innate. Still others take a materialist approach to language, believing that we should only look at what is happening in the brain when we study thought and words. Social interactionist theory is an explanation of language development emphasizing the role of social interaction between the developing child and linguistically knowledgeable adults. It is based largely on the socio-cultural theories of Soviet psychologist, Lev Vygotsky. Theories of Language Development Language acquisition- the way infants learn to understand and speak in their native language B.F. Skinner’s behaviorist model of language acquisition—holds that infants are trained in language by operant conditioning. Argued that language use is a form of behavior like any other Noam Chomsky – suggested that we all possess an innate feature unique to the human mind that allows people to gain mastery of language from limited exposure during the sensitive developmental years in early childhood. This idea was named “universal grammar”. Chomsky provided no anatomical evidence for the exact location or structure of this language acquisition device. • Influence of language on cognition • • • Influence of Language on Cognition Some believe that speech is not developmentally equivalent to thought. Linguistic relativity hypothesis (Sapir Whorf) – asserts that not only do language and thought overlap, but cognition and perception are determined by the language one speaks. Native speakers in different language groups conceptualize the world differently. • Brain areas that control language and speech (PSY, BIO) Different Brain Areas Control Language and Speech Broca’s area – located in dominant hemisphere (usually left) of the frontal lobe of the brain, involved in the complicated process of speech production. • Broca’s aphasia – injury to this area, leading to the loss of the ability to speak. People know what they want to say, but are unable to say it. Wernicke’s area – located in the posterior section of the temporal lobe in the dominant hemisphere, involved in the comprehension of speech and written language • Wernicke’s aphasia – do not have a problem producing speech, but are incapable of producing intelligible, meaningful language. The speech production retains a natural sounding rhythm and syntax, but is completely meaningless Emotion (PSY) Three components of emotion (i.e., cognitive, physiological, behavioral) Physiological arousal – physical aspect of emotion, excitation of the body’s internal state (heart pounding, palms sweaty, breathing rapid) Behavioral aspect – screaming, brining hands over your mouth Cognitive Aspect – an appraisal or interpretation of the situation describes how the situation is interpreted or labeled. Many emotions share the same or very similar physiological and behavioral responses; it is the mind that interprets differently Universal emotions (i.e., fear, anger, happiness, surprise, joy, disgust, and sadness) Universal Emotions: Happiness, Sadness, Surprised, Fear, Disgust, Anger (HSSFDA) Most people can readily identify these emotions simply by observing facial expressions - universal Adaptive role of emotion Adaptive Role of Emotion – performance and emotional arousal Yerkes-Dodson Law – relationship between performance and emotional arousal is a U-shaped correlation: people perform best when moderately aroused Theories of emotion • James–Lange theory : Stimulus → physiological → emotion • James-Lange Theory – proposes that first we experience the physiological response and then the emotion. Suggests that the emotional experience is the result of the physiological response. Evidence to back it up: breathing patterns can lead to certain emotions. Does not explain all scenarios. Problems: it assumes that each emotion originates from a distinctive physiological state, but emotions share very similar physiological profiles. Also, the physiological state can be interpreted differently based on context. • Cannon–Bard theory : Stimulus → Physiological : Emotion • Cannon-Bard Theory – criticizes James-Lange theory. Proposes instead that in response to a stimuli, experience of the emotion and physiological/behavioral response occurs at the same time, independently. A problem arises because it fails to explain how controlling for physiological responses (i.e. breathing) can help make us feel calm. • Schachter–Singer theory: Stimulus → Physiological → Cognition → Emotion • Schachter-Singer Theory – Stimulus first produces a physiological response, which we then interpret cognitively to produce an emotion. Like the James-Lange Theory, it proposes that physiological response comes first after stimulus, but emotions aren’t a one-to-one correlate of the physiological response. The role of biological processes in perceiving emotion (PSY, BIO) • Brain regions involved in the generation and experience of emotions • • Biology in Emotion Widespread areas of the brain appear to be associated with specific emotions. Instead of emotion centers, there appear to be emotional circuits which involve many brain structures. • The role of the limbic system in emotion Limbic System – collection of brain structures that lies on both sides of the thalamus; appear to be primarily responsible for emotional experiences. Amygdala – main structure involved in emotion in limbic system; an almond-shaped structure deep within the brain. Can communicate with the hypothalamus (controls physiological aspects of emotion), and prefrontal cortex (behavioral aspects of emotion) Hippocampus – structure in limbic system that plays a key role in the formation of memories. When memories are formed, often the emotions that are associated with these memories The Olfactory bulb is also a part of the limbic system, which is why smell is so essential to our processes of memory The prefrontal cortex is associated with a reduction in emotional feelings, the soft voice that calms down the amygdala • Phineas Gage – railroad worker who in an accident, lost a part of his prefrontal cortex. He became impulsive, unable to stick to plans, and unable to demonstrate empathy. • • Emotion and the autonomic nervous system • Physiological markers of emotion (signatures of emotion) Hypothalamus o SNS and PNS Stress (PSY) The nature of stress • Appraisal • Appraisal – how a stressor is interpreted by the individual. When stressors are appraised as challenges, they can be motivating. If they are appraised as threatening aspects of our identity, well-being, or safety, they cause severe stress • Different types of stressors (e.g., cataclysmic events, personal) Different types of Stressors • Catastrophes – unpredictable large-scale events • Significant life changes – moving, job, marriage, death • Daily hassles – everyday irritations in life including bills, traffic, etc Learned helplessness – sense of exhaustion and lack of belief in one’s ability to manage situations • Effects of stress on psychological functions • Stress outcomes/response to stressors • Physiological (PSY, BIO) • • • Physiological Response to Stressors Sympathetic Nervous System – release of epinephrine and norepinephrine, fast-acting Hypothalamus – releases CRH, which stimulates the anterior pituitary to release ACTH, which signals adrenal cortex to release Cortisol, which shifts the body from using sugar as a source of energy to using fat instead—helps keep blood sugar levels high for the brain. Prolonged cortisol release can lower immune response. • • Emotional • • • Emotional stresses can be correlated with worse medical outcomes. For example, anger can trigger cardiac events such as heart attacks, arrhythmias, and sudden death High levels of stress can contribute to the development of anxiety and depressive disorder Behavioral Individual may respond differently to the same stressor depending on the circumstances o sometimes we confront stressful situations, while at other times we avoid them ▪ PTSD – involves avoidance, hyperarousal, and re-experiencing Managing stress (e.g., exercise, relaxation, spirituality) Emotional and behavior responses are also complicated and important Aerobic exercise is an effective way of coping with stress. Biofeedback – means of recording and feeding back information about subtle autonomic responses in an attempt to train the individual to control those involuntary response. Like, people can be trained to adjust their muscle tension, heartbeats, and respiratory rates. Social support – associated with lower blood pressure, lower stress hormones, and stronger immune system Foundational Concept 7 Biological Bases of Behavior (PSY, BIO) The nervous system • Neurons (e.g., the reflex arc) • • • • • Sensory neurons are afferent neurons, and they travel up dorsally in the spine to higher cortical regions. All somatic sensory neurons have a long dendrite extending from a sensory receptor toward the soma, which is located just outside the CNS in a dorsal root ganglion. There is a pair of dorsal root ganglia for every segment of the spinal cord. These dorsal root ganglia are protected within the vertebral column but are outside the meninges (protective sheath of the brain and cord). Motor neurons are efferent, and they travel down from higher cortical regions ventrally in the spine. Thus, the central nervous system almost acts as an intermediary between the afferent and efferent neurons. Crossing over For starters, all preganglionic neurons have cell bodies in the spine. For somatic neurons, which innervate skeletal muscle, there is no pre/post nonsense. This one neuron projects directly onto the neuromuscular junction and releases acetylcholine. For autonomic, it’s a little more complicated. For the sympathetic nervous system, the preganglionic neuron is short, and projects onto a postganglionic neuron that is close to the spine. The postganglionic neuron is long, and projects onto whatever gland. For the parasympathetic nervous system, the preganglionic neuron is long, and projects onto a postganglionic neuron that is short. This allows for sympathetic nervous system to have more general effects, while the parasympathetic nervous system has more specific effects. This makes sense, because the sympathetic nervous system acts in times of stress, and the body doesn’t have time to be too specific; just a general effect would be more effective. In regularly maintaining homeostasis, however, we can afford to be more specific in our innervation. Think in terms of the location of the ganglia, in between the preganglionic and postganglionic neurons. The fact that the ganglion is closer to the effector organs for the parasympathetic system reflects its closer degree of control. • Every synapse releases ACh except for the synapse between the postganglionic receptor and the effector, which releases epinephrine. I’m also pretty sure that the receptor on the postganglionic receptor is nicotinic and the receptor on the effectors are muscarinic. • • Neurotransmitters Structure and function of the peripheral nervous system • Parasympathetic is rest and digest. It stimulates glands in the digestive and urinary system, constricts airways in the bronchial smooth muscle, decreases cardiovascular activity, constricts the eyes and accommodates “near” vision, and stimulates erection/lubrication. Sympathetic is fight of flight. It inhibits the digestive system and the urinary system, opens airways, increases cardiovascular activity and blood flow to skeletal muscle, induces sweating, dilates the eyes and accommodates for far vision, stimulates the adrenal medulla to release epinephrine, and causes ejaculation/orgasm. It is also worth noting that all sympathetic preganglionic efferent neurons have their cell bodies in the thoracic or lumbar regions of the spinal cord. This is in between the regions that the parasympathetic preganglionic efferent neurons have their cell bodies in: the brainstem or the sacral portion. To remember this, think of the parasympathetic system acting as a “parenthesis”, enclosing the region that the sympathetic efferent neurons emanate from. The sympathetic system is known as the thoracolumbar system, and the parasympathetic system is known as the craniosacral system • • Structure and function of the central nervous system o The brain ▪ Forebrain o Higher brain – contains cerebrum, or cerebral cortex ▪ location of many higher level functions—consciousness, memory, cognition, planning, and emotion ▪ Frontal lobe – location of higher-level executive functions such as planning and impulse inhibition • includes motor cortex – creates map of parts of body, such that specific sets of neurons control certain body parts o the amount of the motor cortex that is devoted to each part of the body depends on the complexity of movement required ▪ parietal lobe – contains the somatosensory cortex, which maps the body’s sensation of touch • also creates a map of the body—large portions of somatosensory cortex make their corresponding regions particularly sensitive ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ o Occipital lobe – site where visual information is processed Temporal lobe – concerned with auditory and olfactory information Cortical brain also contains the hippocampus and amygdala—structures central to the function of the limbic system, which is primarily concerned with memory and emotion Cerebrum is physically divided into two halves (cerebral hemispheres, connected by the corpus callosum • for the most part, the two hemispheres carry out the same functions • however, brain does exhibit some lateralization of cortical functions o lateralized functions take place primarily in one hemisphere of the other ▪ Ex: the production and comprehension of language are localized to two areas in left hemisphere ▪ Midbrain Hindbrain lower brain – earlier stage of evolutionary development ▪ consist of brainstem, cerebellum, and diencephalon ▪ integrates unconscious activities such as the respiratory system, arterial pressure, salivation, emotions, and reaction to pain and pleasure • Brainstem – basic involuntary functions necessary for survival o medulla, pons, and midbrain ▪ medulla – important role in regulation of cardiovascular and respiratory systems • Chemoreceptors in medulla monitor lvls of CO2 in the bloodstream and trigger changes in respiration rate accordingly • receives information about blood pressure and can respond by altering levels of sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation of the heart ▪ pons – coordinates communication between motor cortex and cerebellum ▪ midbrain – relay station for auditory and visual signals • Cerebellum – heavily involved in coordination and planning of movement • Diencephalon – consists of thalamus and hypothalamus o thalamus – control center / waystation because it processes almost all sensory information (except olfactory) before it reaches higher cortical centers, as well as receiving motor commands from these cortical areas on their way to the spinal cord o hypothalamus – regulates many of the body’s basic physiological needs by maintaining homeostasis in multiple systems such as temperature and water balance ▪ hypothalamus and pituitary gland form a major site of interaction between the nervous and endocrine systems ▪ Lateralization of cortical functions ▪ ▪ Vocabulary skills tend to be lateralized to the left hemisphere Visuospatial skills, music perception, and emotion processing tend to be lateralized to the right hemisphere ▪ Methods used in studying the brain Lesion Studies and Experimental Ablation • Purposely destroying parts of the brain in lab animals • Tissue removal, radiofrequency lesions, neurochemical o Neurochemical – acid, hydroxydopamine o Neurochemical can be temporary • Cortical cooling – use of a cryoloop o Temporary Modern Ways of Studying the Brain • Brain Structure o CAT Scans (CT scans) ▪ X rays – tumor, abnormal bleeding ▪ Can’t tell us which areas are active o MRI ▪ Radiowaves – much more detailed than CAT scans ▪ Also doesn’t tell us which areas are active • Brain function o EEG – electrodes placed on scalp ▪ Can’t tell us activity of individual neurons ▪ Only sum totals of electrical activity in brain ▪ Generate wavy lines – can tell if person is having a seizure, is asleep, etc o MEG – magnetic fields ▪ Higher resolution, special shielding, large room, etc • Combined methods – both function and structure o fMRI ▪ neurons that are more active require more oxygen o ▪ Positron emission tomography (PET Scans) (Radioactive glucose releases positrons) ▪ Radioactive glucose • More glucose = more active ▪ More invasive than fMRI (you need to inject someone with glucose o The spinal cord Neuronal communication and its influence on behavior (PSY) • • Dopaminergic neurons are stimulated by dopamine (a neurotransmitter that affects mood -> affects behavior) Defective neurons can cause Parkinson's disease (impaired motor movements, loss of feeling) and Alzheimer's disease (changes in mood, impaired movement and memory) Influence of neurotransmitters on behavior (PSY) The endocrine system • Components of the endocrine system • • • • • • • Hypothalamus- controls the actions of the endocrine system. Adrenal gland- release adrenaline during "fight or flight" situation. Hypophysis (Pituitary gland)- secretes growth and reproduction hormones. Also secretes neurotransmitters. Reproductive organs- Ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone, testes produce testosterone. Thyroid gland- regulates consumption of energy/ metabolism. Parathyroid gland- controls release of parathyroid hormone (PTH) and levels of calcium within the body (high levels of PTH cause the body to increase levels of calcium in the blood, where it becomes available to the bones). Pineal body (gland)- regulates levels of melatonin (hormone that plays a role in sleep cycles). Allows the nervous system to send signals to the endocrine system. Pancreas- secretes digestive enzymes (exocrine pancreas) and insulin (endocrine pancreas). • Effects of the endocrine system on behavior • Hormones and neurotransmitters affect mood, sexual arousal, and circadian rhythm (wake-sleep cycles). • Behavioral genetics Behavioral Genetics – attempts to determine the role of inheritance in behavioral traits • Twin studies – compare traits in monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal) twins • Adoption studies – creates two groups: genetic relatives and environmental relatives o adopted individuals compared with both groups to determine if they are more similar to their genetic relatives or their environmental relatives • Adoption studies can help elucidate the impact of both heredity and environment on phenotype. Twin studies an only examine the impact of genetics because the environment is so similar for each twin • Adopted children have personalities more similar to their biological parents than their adopted parents; traits such as agreeableness, extraversion, introversion, etc • Adopted children are more similar to their adoptive families in terms of attitudes, values, manners, faith, politics • Also instances of identical twins separated at birth and raised independently by different adopted families Heritability does not pertain to an individual, but rather to how two individuals differ. For example, the heritability of intelligence is roughly 50%. This does not mean that your genes are responsible for 50% of your intelligence, rather, it means that heredity is responsible for 50% of the variation in intelligence between you and someone else. • Genes, temperament, and heredity • Temperament is “emotional excitability”. Infants who are considered “difficult” have a temperament that is more irritable and unpredictable, while infants who are considered “easy” have a more placid, quiet, and easygoing temperament. While heredity might predispose infants towards these temperament differences, an easy baby will be treated differently than a difficult baby, and studies have shown that temperament persists through childhood and beyond. • Adaptive value of traits and behaviors • Your traits and behaviors are capable of changing and adapting in response to different experiences and environments. • Interaction between heredity and environmental influences • The characteristics of someone's personality that are encoded by genetics collaborate with the person's environment to create their behavior (and more long-term, personality). Studies have shown that when twins were raised separately (in different environments), they behaved more similarly than a pair of randomly chosen people, but still exhibited different personalities. Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a genetic disease in which the afflicted individual is unable to break down the amino acid phenylalanine, leading to extreme mental retardation. The treatment: create an environment that completely avoid all foods containing phenylalanine. • • Influence of genetic and environmental factors on the development of behaviors • Experience and behavior (PSY) • While it is true that our genes play an important role in our behavior, our individual experiences and our social experiences also shape our behavior in important ways. As social animals, we learn ways of thinking and behavior from our families and peer groups. An individual’s development, then, is determined by a complex interplay of biology, psychology, society, and culture. • Regulatory genes and behavior (BIO) • • Regulatory genes- control the expression of other genes (e.g. encoding for various proteins and microRNAs). Epigenetics- Genes that modify their expression without changing the overall genetic code. This changes the phenotype without changing the genotype. Epigenetics are largely influenced by the environment, but can also be inherited. Example: DNA methylation, the process by which a methyl group is added to a strand of DNA, preventing the expression of some genes. • • Genetically based behavioral variation in natural populations • • Within animal and human populations there are different genes that encode for various behaviors. e.g., Within a population of wolves, some are genetically programmed to behave more aggressively. These wolves will likely kill more prey. Human physiological development (PSY) • Prenatal development • • Prenatal Development Placenta transfers nutrients and oxygen to the developing fetus, and transports waste and carbon dioxide away from fetus o acts as a barrier, protecting the fetus from harmful substances, but some substances like alcohol can still cross this behavior and have a negative impact on neurological development • Motor development Infancy Newborns have some automatic behaviors, reflexes, which are useful for survival • Moro (startle) reflex – startle in response to loud sound or sudden movement • Rooting reflex – in response to touching or stroking cheeks, the baby will turn its head in the direction of the stroke • Sucking Reflex – in response to anything that touches the roof of the baby’s mouth, it will begin to suck • Babinski reflex – in response to the sole of the foot being stroked, baby’s big toe moves upward, and other toes fan out • Tonic neck reflex – in response to its head being turned to one side, the baby will stretch out its arm on the same side and the opposite arm bends up at the elbow • Palmar grasp reflex – in response to stroking the baby’s palm, the baby’s hand will grasp • Walking/stepping reflex – in response to the soles of the baby’s feet touching a flat surface, they will attempt to walk • swimming reflex Motor Development Reflexive movements – 0-1 years. Primitive, involuntary movements that serve to “prime” the neuromuscular system and forms the basis for the more sophisticated movement to come. For example, the palmar grasp reflex primes the nervous system for the more controlled grasping learned at later stages. Overlaps with the stage in which rudimentary movements are learned. Rudimentary movements – 0-2 years. The first voluntary movement performed by a child. Include rolling, sitting crawling, standing, walking Fundamental Movement – 2-7 years. Involves running, jumping, throwing, catching. Highly influenced by the environment Specialized Movement – 7-14 years. Involves combining fundamental movements to apply them in specific tasks. For example, grasping, throwing, and jumping are combined to shoot a basketball. Lifelong Application Stage – from 14+. Movements are continually refined and applied • Developmental changes in adolescence Parenting Styles Authoritarian – involves attempting to control children with strict rules, expected to be followed unconditionally. Wil utilize punishment or discipline. Children grow up to display more aggressive behavior, or may act shy and fearful. Lower self esteem. Permissive – allow their children to lead the show, few rules and demands. Responsive and loving, but rather lenient. Children lack self-discipline and may be self-involved and demanding. Authoritative – listen to their children, encourage independence, place limits on behavior, consistently follow through with consequences, express warmth and nurturing, allow children to discuss their opinions. Is the best parenting. Adolescence – transitional stage between childhood and adulthood. Involves important physical, psychological, and social changes. Puberty occurs. The brain undergoes three major changes: cell proliferation in certain areas, synaptic pruning of unnecessary connections, and myelination (strengthens connections). Prefrontal cortex develops, and the limbic system develops even more rapidly, explaining behavior that appears to be emotionally rather than rationally driven. Adulthood and Later life – marked by a feeling of comfortable independence. Less clearly defined. Personality (PSY) Theories of personality Personality, while very hard to precisely define, is essentially the individual pattern of thinking, feeling, and behavior associated with each person. • Psychoanalytic (Unconscious) Psychoanalytic Perspective • Psychoanalytic theory – personality is shaped by a person’s unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories. These unconscious elements are derived from past experiences, primarily by early caregivers. The existence of this unconscious is inferred from behaviors such as dreams, slips of the tongue, posthypnotic suggestions, and free associations • Sigmund Freud – two instinctual drives motivate human behavior o libido – life instinct, drives behaviors focused on survival, growth, creativity, pain avoidance, and pleasure. Includes more than just sexual energy o Death instinct – drives aggressive behaviors fueled by an unconscious wish to die or to hurt oneself or others • Psychic energy is distributed among three personality components: o id – largely unconscious, source of energy and instincts. Ruled by the pleasure principle—seeks to reduce tension, avoid pain, and gain pleasure. Does not use logical or moral reasoning. Young children function almost entirely from the id. Only one that’s entirely unconscious. o Ego – ruled by the reality principle—uses logical thinking and planning to control consciousness and the id. Tries to find realistic ways to satisfy the id’s desire for pleasure. o Superego – inhibits the id and influences the ego to follow moralistic and idealistic goals rather than just realistic goals; the superego strives for a higher purpose. Strives for perfection, seeks to gain psychological rewards such as feelings of pride and self-love and avoidance of guilt • In the Iceberg model, there are three levels of consciousness: the conscious level, the preconscious level, and the unconscious level. The Ego and Superego operates on all three levels, while the Id mainly resides in the unconscious level. • Ego Defense mechanisms – unconsciously deny or distort reality. Are normal, and are only unhealthy when taken to extremes o Repression – lack of recall of an emotionally painful memory o Denial – Forceful refusal to acknowledge an emotionally painful memory o Reaction Formation – Expressing the opposite of what one really feels, when it would feel too dangerous to express the real feeling (such as acting hateful toward someone you love) o Projection – Attributing one’s own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to another person o Displacement – redirecting aggressive or sexual impulses from a forbidden action or object onto a less dangerous one (going home and kicking the dog instead of your boss) o Rationalization – explaining and intellectually justifying one’s impulsive behavior o Regression – reverting to an earlier, less sophisticated behavior (child reverts to bedwetting after trauma) o Sublimation – Channeling aggressive or sexual energy into positive, constructive activities, such as producing art • At each developmental stage, certain need and tasks must be satisfied. o Freud’s 5 psychosexual stages – mainly based on sensual urges ▪ Oral stage (birth to 1 year)– child seeks sensual pleasure through sucking and chewing ▪ Anal stage (1-3 yrs) – child seeks sensual pleasure through control of elimination ▪ • • Phallic stage (3-6 yrs)– child seeks sensual pleasure through genitals. He/she is sexually attracted to the opposite-sex parent and hostile toward the same-sex parent (Oedipus and Electra Complex). Girls experience penis envy. ▪ Latency Stage (6-puberty)– Sexual interests subside and are replaced by interests in other areas—school, friends, sports ▪ Gential Stage – begins in adolescence, when sexual themes resurface ▪ Freud claims that adult personality is largely determined during first three psychosexual stages. If a stage’s requirements are not met, the child becomes psychologically fixated at that stage and will continue to seek sensual pleasure through behaviors related to that stage o Erik Erikson – extended Freud’s theories. 8 stages: ▪ 1st Stage (0-1): Trust vs Mistrust. Infant’s physical and emotional needs must be met, otherwise will later mistrust the world and relationships ▪ 2nd Stage (1-3): Toddler must resolve crisis of autonomy vs shame and doubt. Needs to explore and make mistakes, otherwise will be dependent as an adult. ▪ 3rd Stage (3-6): Preschool-age must resolve the crisis of initiative vs guilt. Needs to be let to make decisions, or may be guilty taking initiative and will allow others to choose, as an adult. ▪ 4th Stage (6-12): School-age child must resolve crisis of industry vs inferiority. Needs to succeed in school and attain personal goals, or may feel inadequate as an adult ▪ 5th Stage (12-18): adolescent child must resolve crisis of identity vs role confusion. If he does not test limits and clarify his identity, goals, and life meaning, he will develop role confusion. ▪ 6th Stage (18-35): Young adult faces the crisis of intimacy vs isolation. If a person does not form intimate relationships at this stage, he may become alienated and isolated ▪ 7th Stage (35-60): middle age person must resolve crisis of generativity vs stagnation. If he does not feel productive by helping the next generation and resolving differences between actual accomplishments and earlier dreams, he may become stuck in psychological stagnation. ▪ 8th Stage: later life, person must resolve crisis of integrity vs despair. If person looks back with regrets and a lack of personal worth, he may feel hopeless, guilty, and self-loathing Psychoanalytic therapy – uses various methods to help a patient become aware of his unconscious motives and to gain insight into the emotional issues and conflicts that are presenting difficulties. Another goal is to strengthen the ego, so that choices can be based on reality rather than on instincts (id) or guilt (superego). Sometimes is referred to as talk therapy because sessions usually focus on patients talking about their lives. The therapist will look for patterns or significant events that may play a role in the client’s current difficulties. The type of therapy Melfi used on Tony Soprano was psychoanalytic. o Problem – unconscious forces, childhood experiences o Therapy Goals – reduce anxiety through self – insight o General Method – Analysis and interpretation Humanistic perspective (Free Will) Humanistic Perspective • Humanistic theory – focuses on healthy personal development. Humans are seen as inherently good and as having free will. • Actualizing tendency – innate drive to maintain and enhance the organism, most basic motive of all people • A person will grow toward self-actualization—realizing his or her human potential, as long as no obstacle intervenes. • Carl Rogers (Mr. Rogers) o When a child receives disapproval from a caregiver, he senses that the caregiver’s positive regard is conditional. In order to win his approval while still seeing both himself and the caregiver as good, the child introjects the caregiver’s values, taking them on as part of his own self-concept o Self-concept – made up of all the child’s conscious, subjective perceptions and beliefs about himself. o The discrepancy between conscious introjected values and unconscious true values is the root of psychopathology. This discrepancy leads to tension, not knowing oneself, and the feeling that something is wrong. • Attachment Theory – parent-child relationships strongly influence the child’s attitudes about the self and the world • Incongruence – felt when you encounter experiences that contradict your self-concept • Humanistic therapy – provide an environment where clients trust and accept themselves and their emotional reactions, so they can learn and grow from their experiences. Therapist is on an equal level with the client. Active listening and unconditional positive regard. o Problem – barriers to self-understanding and self-aceptance o Therapy Goals – Personal growth through self-insight o General Method – active listening, unconditional positive regard • Trait perspective • • • • Trait Perspective Personality trait – generally stable predisposition toward a certain behavior Surface traits – evident from a person’s behavior (talkative, exuberant, other adjectives for describing human behavior) Source traits – factors underlying personality and behavior; fewer and more abstract. • • Raymond Cattell – used factor analysis to identify 16 surface traits, reducing 15 of them to five global factors (source traits): extroversion, anxiety, receptivity, accommodation, and self control. Some surface traits are associated with more than one global factor. Problem solving, one of the 16 primary factors (surface traits), is not part of any global factors. McCrae and Costa – described Five-Factor Model, similar to Cattell’s o Openness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, agreeableness, extraversion • Social cognitive perspective Environment – genetic interbalance, probably most reasonable: Reciprocal interaction • Social Cognitive Perspective – personality is formed by a reciprocal interaction among behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors o behavioral component – patterns of behavior learned through classical and operant conditioning o Social component – observational, or vicarious, learning Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) – person’s feelings and behaviors are seen as reactions not to actual events, but to the person’s thoughts about those events. Each person lives by self-created subjective beliefs about himself, other people, and the world, and these beliefs color the person’s interpretations of events. These beliefs are often unconscious. The goal of cognitive psychotherapy is to help client become aware of irrational beliefs and substitute rational beliefs and thoughts. o Problem – Maladaptive behavior, self defeating thoughts o Therapy Goals – Extinction and relearning of undesired thoughts/behaviors and healthier thinking and self-talk o General Method – reconditioning, desensitization, reversal of self-blame • • Biological perspective Clear, visible abnormalities in brain Biological Perspective – heritability of basic personality traits Hans Eysenck – proposed that a person’s level of extroversion is based on individual differences in the reticular formation (which mediates arousal and consciousness). Introverts are more easily aroused and therefore require and tolerate less external stimulation, whereas extroverts are less easily aroused and are therefore comfortable in more stimulating environments. Neuroticism is based on individual differences in the limbic system. Correlation has been found between extroversion and the volume of brain structures involved with processing rewards, and between neuroticism and volume of brain regions involved with processing negative emotions and punishments Jeffrey Alan Gray – proposed that personality is governed by interactions among three brain systems that respond to rewarding and punishing stimuli • fearfulness and avoidance are linked to sympathetic nervous system, worry and anxiety are linked to the behavioral inhibition system, and optimism and impulsivity are linked to the behavioral approach system C. Robert Cloninger also linked personality to brain systems involved in learning reward, motivation, and punishment. Proposed that personality is linked to the level of activity of certain neurotransmitters in three interacting systems. • Low dopamine – higher impulsivity and novelty seeking • low norepinephrine – higher approval seeking and reward dependence • Low serotonin – risk avoidance • Behaviorist perspective Reinforcement-punishment, deterministic Behaviorist Perspective – personality is a result of learned behavior patterns based on a person’s environment. • Deterministic – proposing people begin as blank slates, and that environmental reinforcement and punishment completely determine an individual’s behavior and personalities. • Development of personality occurs through classical or operant conditioning. • Behavioral therapy – uses conditioning to shape a client’s behaviors in the right direction. o ABC model: determine Antecedents and Consequences of the Behavior. Proceeds by changing antecedents and consequences. Example: client is helped to relax while repeatedly being exposed to something that provokes anxiety Situational approach to explaining behavior It all depends Situational Approach to Explaining Behavior Person-situation controversy (trait vs state) – considers the degree to which a person’s reaction in a given situation is due to their personality or due to the situation itself Traits – internal, stable, and enduring aspects of personality, should be consistent States –situation; unstable, temporary, and variable aspects of personality that are influenced by external environment People tend to modify their behavior based on social cues—verbal or nonverbal hints that guide social interactions people do not act with predictable consistency – in unfamiliar situations, people tend to modify their behavior based on social cues. specific traits may remain hidden. Psychological Disorders (PSY) Understanding psychological disorders A set of behavioral and/or psychological symptoms that are not in keeping with cultural norms, and are severe enough to cause significant personal distress and impairment to social, occupational, or personal functioning Sometime cultural norms can be rules out as a source of behavior; for example, when what appears to be a delusion or even a hallucination can be better understood in terms of religious or spiritual practice, that belief or experience would not count as a symptom of a psychological disorder. A psychological disorder is diagnosable based on specific symptoms and symptom threshold, and treatable (at least manageable) with various types of medication and or therapy Classifying Psychological Disorders Diagnostical and Statistical manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition: DSM-5 Etiology – cause or set of causes or causal conditions for a particular disease • Biomedical vs. biopsychosocial approaches • Biopsychosocial approach to health and illness claims that illness cannot be understood by only examining biological factors; considers social factors to be integral to functioning at the level of individual biology Biomedical approach – focuses narrowly on the physical aspects of illness • • Classifying psychological disorders • DSM 5 • Rates of psychological disorders • In America, roughly 1 in every 4 adults meets the diagnostic criteria for a psychological disorder. • Serious psychological disorders are less common, affecting 1 in 17 people in the US • Types of psychological disorders • Anxiety disorders Phobias, Panic, Social Anxiety Anxiety Disorders—anxiety is intense, frequent, irrational, and uncontrollable • Panic disorder – have suffered from at least one panic attack and is worried about having more of them o panic attack – person experiences intense dread, along with shortness of breath, chest pain, choking sensation, and rapid heartbeat/palpitations • Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) –feeling tense or anxious much of the time, but does not experience panic attacks. May be no identifiable source • Phobias – can be specific and social o Specific – persistent, strong, unreasonable fear of a certain object or situation ▪ situational (flying), Natural environment (thunderstorms), Blood-Injection-Injury (surgical procedures), Animal (spiders) o Social Anxiety Disorder – unreasonable, paralyzing fear of feeling embarrassed or humiliated while one is seen or watched by others • Obsessive–compulsive disorder Obsession → Compulsion Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders • OCD – person has obsessions, compulsions, or both o obsessions – repeated, intrusive, uncontrollable thoughts or impulses that cause distress or anxiety o Compulsions – repeated physical or mental behaviors that are performed in response to an obsession or in accordance with a strict set of rules, in order to reduce distress or prevent something dreaded from occurring. o An obsession may be an irrational fear of contamination by dirt, and a compulsion may be washing yourself repeatedly, perhaps with a lengthy ritual • Trauma- and stressor-related disorders PTSD Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders • Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) – can arise when a person feels intense fear/horror while experiencing/witnessing an extremely traumatic event. Most people will experience at least one traumatic event in their life, but only few will develop PTSD. The traumatic event is often relived through dreams and flashback in which the person feels as though the vent is currently happening. Person is also chronically physiologically hyperaroused, and hypervigilant. The symptoms must be present for at least a month. • Acute Stress Disorder – similar to PTSD, but its symptoms are present for less than a month • Adjustment Disorder – less severe and shorter-term version of the condition, in which the causes include a stressor as opposed to a trauma and the symptoms last less than six months once the stressor is gone • Somatic symptom and related disorders Hypochondriasis, imagined pain Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders Psychological disorders characterized by distress and decreased functioning due to persistent physical symptoms and concerns, which may mimic physical disease but are not rooted in any detectable pathophysiology • Somatic Symptom Disorder – central complaint is one or more somatic symptoms and diagnosis also requires evidence of diminished functioning stemming from excessive preoccupation and anxiety about the symptoms • Illness Anxiety Disorder – distress is predominantly psychological, with people experiencing persistent preoccupation with their health (hypochondriasis). Somatic aspect of illness is not as central, or can be nonexistent • • • Conversion Disorder – experience of a change of sensory or motor function (weakness, tremors) that has no discernible physical or physiological cause and that seems to be significantly affected by psychological factors. The emotion or anxiety is “converted” into a physical symptom Factitious Disorder – “Munchhausen Syndrome” when imposed on yourself or “Munchausen by Proxy” when imposed on someone else. When imposed on oneself, a person has not just fabricated an illness, but also falsified evidence or symptoms of illness, or inflicts harm to himself to induce injury or illness Bipolar and related disorders Poles: Depression and Mania Bipolar and Related Disorders Bipolar disorder (formerly called manic depression) – people experience cyclic mood episodes at one or both extremes or “poles”: depression and mania Manic episode – for at least one week, person experiences an abnormal euphoric, unrestrained, or irritable mood, and marked increase in goal-directed activity or in psychomotor agitation (when there is no opportunity to pursue goal-directed activity) Bipolar I disorder – diagnosed only if there has been a spontaneous manic episode not triggered by treatment for depression or caused by another medical condition/medication. Person has experienced at least one manic or mixed episode • Mixed episode – person has met the symptoms for both major depressive and manic episodes nearly every day for at least a week, and the symptoms are severe Bipolar II Disorder – manic phases are less extreme. Cyclic moods—include at least one major depressive episode and one hypomanic episode, but has not met criteria for a manic or mixed episode • Hypomanic episode – for at least four days, person has abnormally euphoric or irritable mood, but at a less severe level. Impairment or distress is less serious, and there is no psychosis or hospitalization • Major depressive episode – person has felt worse than usual for most of the day for at least two weeks straight o Has at least five of following symptoms: depressed mood, decreased interest, significant increase/decrease in weight, excessive/insufficient sleep, fatigue, impaired decision making, thoughts of death Cyclothymic disorder – moods are less extreme than bipolar disorder, with symptoms not meeting criteria for either a manic or major depressive episode Dysthymic syndrome – at least two years, similar symptoms to depression, more of a chronic mood state or syndrome, not as discrete • Depressive disorders • • Depressive Disorders Persistent pattern of abnormal and often painful mood symptoms severe enough to cause significant personal distress and/or impairment to social, occupational, or personal functioning Affect – person’s observable emotion in the moment Mood – person’s sustained internal emotion that colors his view of life Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) – has suffered one or more major depressive episodes. 10% attempt suicide and many more contemplate it or devise a suicide plan. These symptoms do not indicate major depression if they occur within two months of bereavement Persistent Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia, PDD) – less intense, more chronic form of depression, no major depressive episode. Most often starts during adolescence or early adulthood Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder – only diagnosed in women, many symptoms of a major depressive episode are present, with the caveat that they intensify in the final week before the onset of menses and then improve and in many cases disappear in the week after menstruation has ended • • • • • • Schizophrenia Delusions / hallucinations Schizophrenia Spectrum and other Psychotic Disorders Diagnosed when someone has been experiencing one or more of the following symptoms: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking, disorganized or abnormal motor behavior, and one or more negative symptoms: decreased emotional expression, avolition (lack of motivation), alogia (decreased or absent speech) Note also that while schizophrenia literally means “split mind,” it refers to a split in mental functions, or a split from reality; it does not indicate a split in identity • Delusional Disorder o Delusion – false belief that is not due to culture, and is not relinquished despite evidence on the contrary o One or more delusions have been present for at least a month, and counterevidence is generally denied or distorted to keep the delusion intact o Common: Erotomania (believing that someone is in love with you), grandiosity, and persecution (being persecuted) • Brief Psychotic Disorder o Positive symptoms (delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, disorganized behavior) are present for at least one day, but less than a month Hallucination – false sensory perception that occurs while person is conscious. Can be auditory or visual • Schizophreniform Disorder – occupies a middle position on the schizophrenia spectrum: person experiences at least one positive symptom, but can also experience one or more negative symptoms, for at least a month but not longer than six months • • Schizophrenia – at the end of the spectrum – diagnosed when someone has been experiencing positive and negative symptoms for longer than six months. NO complete remission without medication Schizoaffective Disorder – combines mood and psychotic symptoms of schizophrenia and a major depressive, manic, or mixed episode, for at least a month. Person experiences delusions/hallucinations at times in the absence of mood symptoms and in their presence. Resembles a chronic psychotic disorder with an overlapping bipolar or depressive disorder Catatonic Schizophrenia - negative symptoms, such as flat affect and rigidity, are the dominant type. • Dissociative disorders Split Identity, forgetting • Dissociative Disorders Some of a persons’ thoughts, feelings, and memories are separated from conscious awareness and control, occurring sometimes as a defense against a traumatic situation. These disruptions in awareness are extreme and cause distress Dissociative Identity Disorder – person alternates among two or more distinct personality states, only one of which interacts with other people at a given time. Involves amnesia for one or more of the personality states. Many people incorrectly label this as schizophrenia Dissociative Amnesia – person has had at least one episode of forgetting some important personal information, creating gaps in memory that are usually related to severe stress or trauma. Person wanders aimlessly during the episode —dissociative fugue. Begins and ends suddenly, with full recovery of memory, thought it may also linger with some information only gradually coming back to consciousness. “Selective Forgetting” Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder • Depersonalization – has a recurring or persistent feeling of being cut off or detached from his body or mental processes —an “out of body experience” • Derealization disorder – person experiences a feeling that people or objects in the external world are unreal, even though person knows this feeling to be inaccurate • Personality disorders Personality Disorders Enduring, rigid set of personality traits that deviates from culture norms, impairs functioning, and causes distress either to the person with the disorder or to those in his or her life. Many personality disorders are egosyntonic—generally in harmony with a person’s ego or self-image. It is usually the consequences of the personality disorder, not its symptom structure that causes a person to seek treatment. A difficult or rigid personality becomes a disorder when the pattern causes significant distress or impairment, has been present since adolescence, affects nearly all personal and social situations, and creates dysfunction Cluster A – paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders associated with irrational, withdrawn, cold, or suspicious behaviors Cluster B – antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders associated with emotional, dramatic, and attentionseeking behaviors Cluster C – avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders, associated with tense, anxious, over-controlled behaviors Personality Disorders • Paranoid – mistrusts and misinterprets others’ motives and actions without sufficient cause • Schizoid – a loner with little interest or involvement in close relationships • Schizotypal Personality Disorder – has several traits that cause problems interpersonally, including limited or inappropriate affect; magical/paranoid thinking, and odd beliefs, speech, and perceptions. Can develop schizophrenia Schizoid not really by choice --schizotypal • Antisocial – history of serious behavior problems, including significant aggression against people or animals, property destruction, lying, or rule violation. Disregards rights of others • Borderline – suffers from enduring or recurrent instability in his or her impulse control, mood, and image of self and others. Involves impulsive and reckless behavior, extreme mood swings, etc. Terrified of abandonment, tends to devalue or demonize • Histrionic – strongly desires to be the center of attention. Expressions of emotion are dramatic, yet the emotions themselves are shallow and shifting • Narcissistic – feels grandiosely self-important, with fantasies of beauty, brilliance, and power. Arrogant and haughty • Avoidant – feels inadequate, inferior, and undesirable, preoccupied with fears of criticism and conflict • Dependent – feels need to be taken care of by others and an unrealistic fear of being able to take care of himself • Obsessive-Compulsive – may not have true obsessions or compulsions, but may instead accumulate money or worthless objects. Perfectionistic, rigid, and stubborn, with a need for control. Resists authority and will not cooperate. Often a workaholic Biological bases of nervous system disorders (PSY, BIO) • Schizophrenia Schizophrenia – neurological disorder with a strong genetic basis. If an identical twin has schizophrenia, the other has a 50% chance of having it • Stress-Diathesis theory – suggests that genetic inheritance provides biological predisposition, and stressors elicit the onset of disease • • Dopamine hypothesis – suggests that the pathway for the neurotransmitter dopamine is hyperactive in people with schizophrenia, due to both overabundance of dopamine and hypersensitive dopamine receptors Individuals with schizophrenia have also been found to have smaller brains due to atrophy. Brains have increased ventricles (cavities in brain) and enlarged sulci and fissures (less folding) • Depression • Depression – strong genetic basis—there is increased risk of developing depression when a first-degree family member has it. Linked to diminished functioning in pathways of brain that involve dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine. • Alzheimer’s disease • Alzheimer’s disease – most prevalent form of dementia—the loss of cognitive ability beyond what is expected due to aging. Alzheimer’s is characterized by anterograde amnesia (inability to form new memories) and retrograde amnesia, with more recent memories degrading first. It is a cortical disease, affecting the cortex, the outermost tissue. It is caused by formation of neuritic plaques—hard formations of beta-amyloid protein, and neurofibril tangles—clumps of tau protein. When these plaques build up, they reach a critical mass and begin to cause cell death by “gunking up” neuronal connections, preventing nutrients and waste from exchanging. Also, there is some evidence of abnormalities in activity of acetylcholine in the hippocampus. • Parkinson’s disease • Parkinson’s Disease – movement disorder caused by death of cells that generate dopamine in basal ganglia and substantia nigra, two subcortical structures in the brain. Symptoms involve resting tremor, slowed movement, rigidity of movements and facial expressions. Most patients eventually experience dementia. Patients given L-dopa treatments, as it is a precursor to dopamine that is able to pass through the blood-brain barrier (dopamine is not able to do this) • • Stem cell-based therapy to regenerate neurons in the central nervous system (BIO) It has been theorized that neural stem cells, which have the capacity to differentiate into any of the cell types in the nervous system, hold the key to curing damage to the central nervous system Motivation (PSY) Factors that influence motivation • Instinct • Instincts – behaviors that are unlearned and present in fixed patterns throughout a species • Arousal • Arousal – some behaviors may be motivated by a desire to achieve an optimal level of arousal • Drives (e.g., negative feedback systems) (PSY, BIO) Drives/Negative Feedback Systems • Drive – an urge originating from a physiological discomfort such as hunger, thirst, or sleepiness o often work through negative feedback systems—maintains stability or homeostasis • Needs • Needs – includes basic biological needs, also includes higher-level needs Theories that explain how motivation affects human behavior • Drive reduction theory • Drive Reduction theory – suggests that a physiological need creates an aroused state that drives the organism to reduce that need by engaging in some behavior • Incentive theory • Incentive Theory – motivation through external stimuli, objects, and events in the environment that either help induce or discourage certain behaviors Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs • Abraham Maslow created this pyramid o At the base are physiological needs, followed by safety, then love/belongingness, Esteem needs, and then Selfactualization o First, you want food and water. Then you want to be safe. Then you want to have friends, belong somewhere (you need a family), Then you want esteem, and after you want all that, you want self actualization. • Other theories (e.g., cognitive, need-based) • Cognitive theories of motivation o Expectancy theory- states that our behavior is a result of conscious choices that we make to minimize pain and maximize pleasure. o Goal-Setting theory- states that there is a link between goal setting and task performance, and that by setting and achieving small goals (and receiving positive feedback), we are more likely to accomplish more difficult goals later. Need-based theory of motivation- "Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs", developed by Abraham Maslow, states that there are five levels of human needs (from low-level to higher-level needs). Levels include: • 1. Physiological needs- includes the need to maintain homeostasis (food, water, body temperature, oxygen, ability to reproduce). 2. Safety needs- includes the need to feel safe and protected in one's environment. 3. Social needs- includes the need to feel like you belong (feelings of love and appreciation, avoidance of loneliness). 4. Esteem needs- includes the need to achieve independence, self-esteem, and to receive respect from peers. 5. Self-actualization- when all these needs are met, one can realize one's full potential, and find external meaning. • Biological and sociocultural motivators that regulate behavior (e.g., hunger, sex drive, substance addiction) Biological Factors that Regulate Motivation Our bodies have a “sweet spot” at which things are in homeostasis Hypothalamus is the primary control center for detecting changes in temperature and receives input from skin receptors. It causes vasoconstriction (conserving heat) and shivering when cold. Hypothalamus also regulates the intake of nutrients into the body. The lateral hypothalamus brings on hunger, while the ventromedial hypothalamus depresses hunger. Ghrelin, released by the stomach and pancreas, heightens the sensation of hunger, while leptin, a hormone released by white adipose tissue, reduces hunger Sociocultural: body weight (thinner is better), experience Attitudes (PSY) Components of attitudes (i.e., cognitive, affective, and behavioral) Attitude – person’s feelings and beliefs about other people or events around them, and their tendency to react behaviorally based on those underlying evaluations. Have three components: Affect (emotion), behavior tendencies, and cognition - doesn’t really make any fucking sense • Cognitive- involves someone's beliefs and knowledge. What someone knows to be true can affect one's attitude towards certain issues. E.g., If you know that lions are dangerous, your attitude towards them may be negative and fearful. • Affective- involves someone's feelings or emotions, which largely shape our attitude. E.g., If you love someone, you will most likely address them with a positive, loving attitude. • Behavioral- involves someone's actions. Our behavior is greatly dependent on our attitude. E.g., If we have a positive attitude, we are more likely to behave productively. The link between attitudes and behavior • Processes by which behavior influences attitudes (e.g., foot-in-the door phenomenon, role-playing effects) Processes by which Behavior Influences Attitudes • Role-playing. Most famous example is Philip Zimbardo’s Stanford prison experiment • Public Declarations – in order to please others, people may feel a pressure to adapt what they say. Saying something publically can become believing it—as we continue to express ourselves, we become more and more entrenched in believing what we say. Is the basis for political correctness—“saying can become believing • Justification of Effort – For example, a student who works hard to study for the MCAT and earns a fantastic score, only to feel a calling towards becoming an actor. In order to justify the effort already put into the process, he will feel pressured to go to medical school. Sunk Cost Fallacy. Also the basis of the Foot in the Door phenomenon—while people may have agreed to the earlier steps because they required minimal commitment, they will find themselves feeling internal pressure to consent to larger requests to justify their acceptance of the smaller requests. Another example is finding that doing favors for someone increases feelings of liking for that person. • Processes by which attitudes influence behavior Behavior does not accurately reflect attitudes at times. The relationship between who we believe we are and what we do is complex. There are some situations in which attitudes to accurately predict behavior: • When social influences are reduced (people being more honest in a secret ballot • When general patterns of behavior, rather than specific behavior, are observed. This reflects the principle of aggregation – an attitude affects a person’s aggregate or average behavior, but not necessarily each isolated act. • When specific, rather than general, attitudes are considered. For example, belief in a healthy lifestyle is not as important as say, an attitude of eating properly, in predicting what a person will eat. o Specific attitude, but general behavior—makes sense • When attitudes are made more powerful through self-reflection. People are more likely to behave in accordance with their attitudes if they are given some time to prepare themselves to do so, rather than acting automatically. Icek Ajzen's theory of planned behavior states that one's behavioral beliefs influences one's attitude towards the behavior, which then affects how someone decides to behave. • e.g., If someone believes that they should behave quietly while attending church, they would feel happy to comply with this behavior, and, when in church, behave quietly. • Cognitive dissonance theory • • Cognitive Dissonance Theory – explains that we feel tension, or dissonance, when our attitudes and behaviors don’t match. We may feel like hypocrites when this happens. An important application of this principle is in internal attitude changes. Consider a child receiving 100$ for an A and another receiving 10$. The one that receives 10$ is more likely to feel that working hard is intrinsically valuable. Also, imagine a women choosing between two suitors—one romantic but undependable, the other subdued but dependable. According to Cognitive Dissonance Theory, she will change her attitudes to accentuate the positive qualities of the man she chooses, along the with the negative qualities of the other man.