Chapter 11 - Physical Development in Middle and Late Childhood

Physical Development in Middle and Late Childhood Welcome to Middle and late Childhood! The content below is meant to add-on to what you have read in the textbook. Middle and late childhood occurs during the "school-age" time of development. Children (approx. 6-12 years old) most often have smooth and strong motor skills. However, their coordination (especially eyehand), endurance, balance, and physical abilities vary. Fine motor skills may also vary widely. These skills can affect a child's ability to write neatly, dress appropriately, and perform certain chores, such as making beds or doing dishes. There will be big differences in height, weight, and build among children of this age range. It is important to remember that genetic background, as well as nutrition and exercise, may affect a child's growth. A sense of body image begins developing around age 6. Sedentary habits in school-age children are linked to a risk for obesity and heart disease in adults. Children in this age group should get at least 1 hour of physical activity per day. In addition, it is particularly important to pay attention to physical/cognitive milestones that might not be met and/or delayed during this critical growth period. At times, children may need extra support in school, so they can continue to work towards meeting milestones with support. In that, you will learn more about Individualized Education Plans (IEPs), 504 Plans, in this chapter/lecture, as well. Fine Motor Skills Development Specifically, middle childhood-aged children show dramatic improvements in their printed handwriting and ability to write in cursive letters (e.g., "script" forms of handwriting). They also develop the ability to draw complex and detailed pictures that for the first time begin to incorporate depth cues (i.e., such as drawing farther away objects smaller) and 3D elements. Often, children's artistic ability can truly begin to shine during this stage as improved fine motor skills and imagination combine. During this stage, children also learn how to use their hands to successfully accomplish manual activities other than drawing or writing. For instance, they become capable of executing complex meticulous craft projects involving beading, sewing, scrapbooking, and building models and good at using simple tools such a hammer or a hand mixer (both under adult supervision, we hope!). Learning to touch type becomes a serious possibility currently. Children also commonly become quite skillful at playing complicated games involving hand-eye coordination, including video and computer games. Children's easy use of communications tools such as cell phones and computers, which becomes possible as they master increasingly complex fine motor skills, exposes them to a world much larger and more complicated than they can imagine. Parents need to be aware of both the positive and negative potential effects of allowing children of this age to play video games and access the Internet. Gross Motor Skills Development During middle childhood, children continue to build on and improve gross motor skills; the large-scale body movement skills such as walking and running that they first learned during earlier developmental stages. In general, boys develop these skills slightly faster than do girls, except for skills involving balance and precise movements such as skipping, jumping, and hopping. At this age, children run faster than previously possible, often clocking more than eighteen feet per second. They can also jump higher (on average between four and twelve inches off the ground) and farther (on average, three to five feet or more). These figures are average for children of this age range and will not apply to individual children. No two children will develop physical skills in the same pattern or time frame. Middle childhood-aged children also refine their control over gross motor skills, learning to master where they hop, skip, throw, and jump. They are able to gain this improved control and coordination due to increases in their flexibility (e.g., their range of movement in joints and muscles), balance, and agility (e.g., their ability to change their body's position, which requires a combination of balance, coordination, speed, reflexes, and strength) Kids at this age also learn how to synchronize the movement of their body's various parts, allowing for the development of smoother, more coordinated whole-body movement routines such as are needed for participating in organized sports (e.g., throwing a football, batting a baseball, or dribbling a basketball). Due to their progress regarding the growth and maturity of motor, cognitive, and social skills, many children will now become capable and competitive participants on sports teams. How Do Gross Motor Activities Affect Learning and Concentration? Most school staff are already aware of the physical benefits of exercise, such as strengthening of the heart and lungs, preventing weight gain, healthy bones, good posture, and more. However, many are not aware of the potential brain-boosting benefits of physical activity in school performance. How does physical development affect learning? What does the research say? Many students are missing out on opportunities to accomplish this important physical activity. For example, years ago kindergarten was meant to teach children how to play, listen, follow rules, and interact with peers. Now kindergarten teachers, and even preschool teachers, are forced to spend more time on structured, academic instruction. This frequently translates into more seatwork time and less movement and active free playtime. Teachers know all too well how much effort is spent on trying to get and maintain students9 attention. Teachers try frequent questioning, moving about the room, changing the tone of voice, and many more techniques. An alternative method for teachers to increase attention, concentration, and on-task behavior may be to incorporate bouts of physical activity throughout the school day. Research has shown that some children who participated in an in-class physical activity program improved their ontask behaviors by 20 percent (Mahar, 2006). Additional research regarding physical activity and school performance revealed that physical activity may improve concentration (Taras, 2005). Active lessons that require more coordinated gross motor skills such as balancing, reaction time, etc. were associated with a better concentration on academic tasks (Budde, 2008). Physical education class and recess are usually the first things cut when more academic time is required for remediation in reading and math skills. At the end of the day, the children are spending too much time in a sedentary mode. Research indicates that this sedentary lifestyle has a negative effect on cognitive development. One of the greatest brain gains of exercise is the ability for physical activity to improve actual brain function by helping nerve cells to multiply, creating more connections for learning (Cotman, 2002; Ferris, 2007). Research has shown that an increase in physical activity has a significant positive effect on cognition, especially for early elementary and middle school students (Sibley, 2002). As a bonus, being physically fit as a child may make you smarter for longer as you grow old. (Deary, 2006). Physical education classes and recess offer opportunities for students to increase physical activity throughout the school day. Although, at times children are sedentary even during these periods. Research indicated that children who participate in physical activity during physical education lessons may facilitate immediate and delayed memory (Pesce, 2009). Many studies show that the more vigorous the physical activity is the larger the effects on academic performance (Carlson, 2008; Castelli, 2011) Even acute bouts of physical activity have been shown to improve cognition. One study revealed that preadolescent children who completed 20 minutes of treadmill training at a moderate pace responded to test questions on reading, spelling, and arithmetic with greater accuracy and had improved reading comprehension compared to children who had been sitting. In addition, the children who completed learning tasks faster and more accurately were more likely to read above their grade level following the physical activity (Hillman, 2009). And like it or not, tests happen in all grade levels in middle childhood. Ever wonder why people of all ages fall asleep after sitting for long periods of time, even with a good night of sleep before? It's because the brain is lacking in Oxygen - a needed element for brain alertness and heightened function. Here is a chart that gives some great ideas to get Oxygen to the brain and help it get back to being alert. Listen to these advocating moms in Orlando, Florida speak about how they activated the school community to push for more recess. They speak of the connection to brain science, as well as research about how physical play supports child development overall, in addition to the positives connected to increased test scores. Why Taking Away Recess Is NOT OK!! When teachers deny recess for poor classroom behavior or late work, they hurt not only their students with ADHD, but the whole classroom. Learn why 8losing recess9 is a terrible punishment... Seven-year-old Scott, who has attention deficit disorder, can9t go out for recess because he speaks up in class without raising his hand. Rachel loses two days of recess because she hasn9t earned enough points on her behavior chart for completing classwork on time. Matt9s teacher keeps him in the classroom because he gets out of his seat. When recess is withheld as a punishment for misbehavior at school or for incomplete academic work, teachers and children suffer. Teachers who know the benefits of recess for kids with ADHD never withhold it. First, < acting out= behavior is less frequent among children who go to recess. Students, with or without ADHD, show improved attention, working memory, and mood after physical activity. Second, playing with classmates helps children develop and sharpen social skills. Recess is the pause that refreshes. Recess shouldn9t have to be < earned= by kids with ADHD and other disabilities. A report by the Centers for Disease Control, which analyzed dozens of studies about how physical activity affects classroom performance, found that recess and physical education contributed positively to the academic and behavioral performance of students. Benefits to Outdoor Play Growing up many of us might have been told at some point to go outside and find something to do. Today, especially in a school setting child are being told less and less to go outside, as they are encouraged to stay inside and study more. Our children are getting fewer breaks from academics to achieve higher scores on testing and to meet standards for achievement. The issue with studying more is that the brain doesn9t have a chance to get a break, and recharge. In an educational institution, recess is a time when children should engage in unstructured play, which is not directed by adults, although supervised. Recess, or just outdoor playtime, is an opportunity for a child to freely play, or think the way they want to think, and not be directed by an adult or teacher. This type of thinking enables the child to use the brain the way he or she wishes to use it. Children are also physically active during play and develop social, emotional, and cognitive competencies. Although children love to move, and adults tend to think of them as constantly being in motion, children today are leading much more sedentary lives than their predecessors. According to research, children ages 2 to 5 spend close to 25 hours of TV time each week. In fact, watching television is the predominant sedentary behavior in children, second only to sleeping. The advent of computers and video games has also contributed to the decline in children's activity levels. Beyond the benefits to children directly, consider what it might do for their interest in ecology and biology, and future conservation efforts around the globe. If a child has limited exposure and/or interest to play within the natural environment early in life, how can they find a connection and/or interest to protect it later in life? To answer that question, let's start with the children of today. Life in the 21st Century is quite exciting yet worrisome because of the influence of technology and urbanization. Technology devices are now compulsory tools, while urbanization is squeezing every inch of space out of homesteads. Families now have less time to associate and worse, limited options for children playing outdoors. Consider the following: ▪ Children in urban settings spend more than 5 hours bingeing on television sets and computers largely because they are nudged to do so by busy parents ▪ The total time children spend playing outdoors is minimal because they are prohibited from venturing outside ▪ Meanwhile, children in rural settings spend upwards of 7 hours a day playing outdoors This should be of concern to parents – and many are – especially those that care about the well-being of their children when finally, they grow up. The sedentary lifestyle, in addition to the exposure to manufactured electromagnetic fields (EMFs), is something for parents to think about. Reasons to Get Outside 1. Children playing outdoors is 8for the love of living systems9 Children, just like adults, are drawn to explore the natural world because it offers them opportunities to blend with nature and indulge in physical and mental wellbeing. The concept of human attraction towards nature (outdoors) was hypothesized by the American ecologist Edward O. Wilson in the 1980s and translated into a book he named Biophilia. Wilson defined biophilia as, the connections that human beings subconsciously seek with the rest of life. He argues that the need by humanity to bond with the rest of the life forms and eco-system has its foundations deep in human biology. This takes us back to the question, "how can they find a connection and/or interest to protect it later in life"? It is undeniable that co-existence with other species such as plants (flora), and other animals (fauna) is a gift that children should get to harness in its entirety. However, if children do not have the experience to develop the opportunity to co-exist, how can they do it when they are older? Sir David Attenborough also identifies this need but raises a very interesting concern: schools need to be built to house the increasing numbers of children. This takes away from the natural land for children to play on. So, what can be done? Watch and listen to Sir David Attenborough explain how schools in England are facing tough decisions to accommodate a sharp rise in pupils. He strongly believes that making the choice to sacrifice their outdoor spaces will not only have a catastrophic effect on children's connection with nature but also on their learning, behavior, health, and well-being too. 2. Outdoor play enhances executive functioning skills Executive functioning skills are brain-based mental skills that help both adults and children to accomplish tasks correctly. They involve among others, efficient use of working memory, selfcontrol, and flexible multitasking skills to get the job done. If executed correctly, the skills are enablers for children to form and achieve planned goals and success in school and later in life. Children are not necessarily born with executive functioning skills but can master them based on the environment and experience they are exposed to. Typically, executive functions will enable children to do the following activities correctly: • manage time • pay attention • stay focused on tasks and switch tasks when necessary • capable of multitasking without making mistakes • plan and organize tasks • remember vital details • avoid doing the wrong things • avoid saying the wrong things • use the experience to accomplish tasks • accept different points of view in a discussion • capable of controlling extreme emotions By taking children outdoors they experiment with a lot of possibilities that challenge them to become better at thinking large and out of the box. Just by organizing to go outdoors and planning the tasks to be accomplished, you are getting the children to memorize tasks and hopefully fulfill them correctly. You can make this easy by letting them partake in the planning of trips and related activities. Elsewhere, while playing soccer, doing athletics, riding bicycles, or even playing hide and seek, children progressively learn to use memory, self-control, and multitasking functions in the brain, in order to score a goal, ride a bike, or seek out a friend hiding behind a bush. By playing and socializing with other kids, they learn to check their emotions and overall behavior in public. Of course, this goes hand in hand with effective and active parenting which prepares them for the unknown and other extremes that may happen outdoors. 3. Outdoor playtime is great for vitamin D The human body needs the sun daily, to help create the much-needed Vitamin D which is vital for body growth and development. The exposure is particularly important in the morning and should average anything between 15 and 60 minutes, depending on the skin complexion. Dark-skinned kids need more minutes than light-skinned persons to absorb the right amount of vitamin D. Humanity gets 90 – 95 percent of Vitamin D through type B Ultraviolet (UVB) exposure to the sun. Vitamin D facilitates the absorption of calcium and phosphate from the food we eat. The two are necessary for the body to develop stronger bones and teeth, and enable correct muscle contraction In addition, the hormone called serotonin is released during sunshine exposure to boost mood and positivity during the day. It is just like the melatonin hormone which is released during the night to facilitate better sleep and body growth. Without sufficient exposure to the sun, children are prone to complications such as soft and weak bones, rickets, and type I and II diabetes in later years. Your textbook identifies 4 diseases that, without adequate outdoor exposure/gross motor play, heightens a child's chances of acquiring. 4. Children playing outdoors is great for all-round health There is no better assurance of physical wellness than children playing outdoors. The expansive space outdoors is a catalyst for kids to run, jump, ride, swing, and execute all kinds of motor skills that are impossible indoors. The more time kids play outdoors, the more they • develop stronger bones • burn more calories and avoid obesity • have better brain functionality • become creative and imaginative • eat better • are resilient and stable psychologically • avoid boredom • have better immunity Outdoor physical activities also help young children figure out unique skills and talents, which they can build on to professional levels. These skills include riding, soccer, athletics, etc. which apart from becoming a source of income when they grow up, will ensure they remain physically alert throughout their lives. 5. Outdoor playtime stimulates sensory skills Children, just like adults, use their senses to explore and understand the world around them. At birth, everything is new, and the sensory nerves are almost empty and waiting to be filled up. The spaces can only get filled up by what they do, see, eat, touch, and sensations that happen to their bodies. This is extremely important for brain development. Sensory skills involve the exploration of touch, smell, vision, hearing, taste, balance/movement, and body awareness, which are enhanced by the vast resources available outside the house. When they venture outdoors children will naturally interact with the vastness of plants, animals, and environment to explore the senses listed above. In what is commonly known as sensory play, they will engage in fun activities to discover touch, smell, sight, voices, taste, movement, and awareness of themselves and everything around them Sensory play will satisfy their curiosity, enhance memory, sharpen the brain and learn sensory attributes such as sweetness, bitterness, and coldness. They also get to appreciate sticky forms, mud, insect sounds, good and foul smell, etc. 6. Outdoor play for social well-being Nothing is as painful when children are rejected socially for one reason or another. While one child may develop better social skills early in life, others will falter, and this will have to be addressed through a handful of hacks and by taking children outdoors. This can be done through group play where children learn to interact naturally. Caution should be exercised early on, as kids tend to gang up against each other, and this may impair their ability to see the good in others. This is especially true if measures such as anger management are not addressed from early childhood. Children can as well get trained to participate in volunteer activities to enhance their social skills. They can volunteer in the homes of the elderly, retirement homes, or Sunday schools. In these and other places, they can read for others, and help with small chores here and there. Of course, the need to go out and volunteer makes more sense in slightly older kids than the young ones. Besides games and volunteering, other activities that can foster social skills include, • music classes • dance classes • drama • live events for kids • educational trips • afternoon camping for kids • treasure hunt 7. Children get to escape from tech and EMF Yes, let the children venture outdoors and you will surely get them to escape the addictive television and computers in the house – at least for a few hours. If done consistently, the bingeing instances will reduce as children discover the physical side of their existence. They will ask for even more hours outdoors. Of course, it depends on the nature of outdoor activities and whether they enjoy them or not. Besides TV and Smartphones, your children get to escape from the invisible electromagnetic field waves that always roam the house. The increasing number of electronic devices and electrical wiring and installations in the house usually means more EMF waves circulating in the air. Wi-Fi devices, smartphones, and laptops, just to mention a few should be left behind when the children venture outdoors. The Value of Risky Play Outdoors Risky play can be defined as an unstructured form of physical activity that is thrilling and adventurous for children, and yet carries a degree of uncertainty over the outcomes. Whereas the word 8risk9 has not been used to mean 8danger9 in the past, the implication has changed in the 21st Century. Risky play is now viewed as a negative and dangerous form of play. Parents are jittery over the consequences, especially if they lead to serious physical injury or death! Here is the thing though: Children are naturally drawn towards risky play because their bodies are expending the immense energy they possess and are out to discover new things. They also have little understanding of the underlying dangers. The likelihood of an object causing serious harm to a fellow child does not arise until it happens. While risky play was a common thing in the last Centuries, parental concern over the safety of child play and societal emphasis on injury prevention has meant that children play under supervision or in safe playgrounds. Statistics show that adult supervision has contributed to reducing injury in children worldwide but has again contributed to sedentary existence for many children. To minimize dangers arising from unsupervised play, parents now choose to keep children indoors to play computer games and watch movies. Increasing research shows that placing too many restrictions on child play hampers physical and cognitive development. Children need to take risks to prepare for real-life challenges. Through risky play, they ▪ overcome the fear of failure by trying over and over again ▪ develop self-awareness by learning about how they react to dangerous encounters ▪ learn to deal with environmental dangers such as sharp objects, snakes, electrical shock, etc ▪ are more confident after successes in various challenges ▪ learn independence in instances where they disappear and must find their way home ▪ become versatile by falling from high heights ▪ learn to be aware of natural dangers such as fire and water Risky play outdoors may involve more than just physical play. It may also include encounters that expose them to cognitive and social risks. By trying and failing to earn the trust of friends, they never give up and will try again. As mentioned above the need for active parenting at home will facilitate this journey even better.