Design of the Biology EOC

BIOLOGY EOC STUDY GUIDE This study guide is designed to help students prepare to take the Biology End-Of-Course Test. This study guide contains tips on how to prepare for the test and some strategies students might use to perform their best during the test. STUDY TOOLS AND RESOURCES It is critical that when studying, students have the appropriate environment that fosters and supports positive study habits. Listed below are some suggested study tools and resources that students might consider when preparing for the EOC, during class or independently. STUDY TOOLS AND RESOURCES MATERIALS: -Study Guide, Pen or Pencil, Highlighter, Paper, Notebook RESOURCES: -Dictionary, Textbook, Teacher, Tutor, Study Partner, Notebook, Computer STUDY SPACE: -Comfortable, Good lighting, Minimal Distraction, Work Area TIME COMMITMENT: -When? How long? How often? DESIGN OF THE BIOLOGY EOC Question Format: The Biology EOC test contains 80 multiple choice questions. PREPARING FOR THE EOC NOTE: Preparing for the Biology EOC test will take time, effort, and practice. You cannot prepare for the Biology EOC test in one night! In order to do your best on the Biology EOC test, it is critical that you take the time to prepare and develop study skills. First, you need to make sure that your classroom experiences and study time are used efficiently and productively. Second, it is most helpful to know some general test-taking strategies to ensure that you will achieve the best score. Here are some important questions to ask yourself when developing your study skills. Your answers may help you define some areas in which you need to make some improvements. 1. How would you describe yourself as a student? 2. What are your study skills strengths and/or weaknesses as a student? What methods help you the most? 3. How do you typically prepare for a biology test? 4. Compare an ideal study situation (environment) to your actual study environment. 5. What can you change about the way you study to make your study time more productive? Study skills can actually be divided into separate target areas: time management, organization, and active participation. Use these suggestions to help you improve your study skills and your study environment. TIME MANAGEMENT Do you have a plan for studying? Without a plan, many students don’t meet their goals. Here are some strategies to consider when developing a study plan. - Set realistic goals for each study session - Chart your progress - Study for a reasonable amount of time (cramming is not recommended) - Take frequent breaks - Be consistent – establish a routine - Study the most challenging content FIRST - Build in review time at the end of each study session - Evaluate your accomplishments - Reward yourself ORGANIZATION ACTIVE PARTICIPATION Are you organized? Do you have a place to study and do you have the materials and resources you need to study? Get organized and prepared! What is active studying? It can be anything that gets you to interact with the materials you are studying. Active studying allows you to stay more alert and be more productive while learning new information. - Establish a study area that has minimal distraction - Gather your materials in advance; keep them ready for each study session - Develop a study plan and follow it consistently - Find a way to access the necessary resources (i.e., computer) - Carefully read the information and then DO something with it - Mark important points with a highlighter, circle them with a red pen, write notes on them, or summarize in your own words, read out loud - Ask questions; write them down and actively seek answers - Create sample test questions and answer them - Find a friend who is also preparing for the same test and quiz one another TEST-TAKING STRATEGIES There are many test-taking strategies that you can use before and during a test to help you have the most successful testing situation possible. Here are some questions to help you take a look at your test-taking skills. 1. How would you describe your test-taking skills? List the strategies that you already know and use when you are taking a test. 2. How do you feel when you are taking a test? List test-taking behaviors you use when preparing for and taking a test that do not contribute to (but distract from) your success. 3. What would you like to learn about taking tests? SUGGESTED STRATEGIES TO PREPARE FOR THE BIOLOGY EOC TEST There are some general strategies that you can use to prepare for any test, including the Biology EOC test. These strategies include: - - Pay attention to your daily / weekly grades in your science class. Focus on key factors: a. In which areas of science are you successful? b. What has kept you from achieving higher scores? c. What would you change to allow you to achieve higher scores? Remove or minimize any obstacles that might prevent you from studying – or focusing. Be prepared. Know what standards / skills are being assessed and then practice understanding and using those skills. Know the difference between reading and skimming; you will need to read in detail first, skim later. Don’t wait until the last minute. Begin early and pace yourself. Strategies to Use the Day Before the Biology EOC Test - Review what you have learned from the study guide. - Review general test-taking strategies. - Review content-specific information that shows connections and relationships (lists, diagrams, graphic organizers, etc.). - Focus attention on the areas that you are most in need of improving. - Read short summaries of each area to revitalize your memory. - Get a good night’s sleep. Strategies to Use the Morning of the Biology EOC Test - Eat a good breakfast (protein = long-lasting energy). - Dress appropriately (dress comfortable and in layers; hot or cold extremes can affect your performance). - Arrive for the test on time. - Skim notes, text, vocabulary, and/or diagrams. Strategies to Use During the Biology EOC Test - Focus on the test. Block out what is going on around you. Listen carefully to directions. - Budget your time. Allocate time to work on each question. - Take a quick break. Put your pencil down, take a deep breath, close your eyes – one minute – then resume. - Practice positive self-thinking. - Mark key ideas in your test booklet and come back to them. - Read each question completely. Read answer choices completely. Follow the process of selection and elimination. - Check your answers when you have finished the test. INFORMATION TO STUDY FOR THE BIOLOGY EOC TEST (Lists, Diagrams, Graphic Organizers, Key Vocabulary, Distinctive Categories, etc.) You should plan to study / review the content for ALL the goals and objectives. In this section, you will find contentspecific information that shows connections, relationships, and key vocabulary for each of the five major goals. GOAL 1: Design and conduct investigations to demonstrate an understanding of scientific inquiry.      Scientific Investigations Hypotheses, Variables, Controls, Measurement / Tools, Data, Charts / Graphs, Communication of Findings Inquiry Activities, Research, Statistical Techniques, Laboratory Reports, Sources of Error, Community Involvement Safety Procedures, Laboratory / Field Studies, Potential Hazards, Manipulate Materials / Equipment Analyze Reports, Scientifically Literate Viewpoint, Adequacy of Experimental Controls, Replication, Interpretations HYPOTHESIS: tentative explanation for an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem that can be tested by further investigation VARIABLE: to vary or change INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: a manipulated variable in an experiment or study whose presence or degree determines the change in the dependent variable DEPENDENT VARIABLE: the observed variable in an experiment or study whose changes are determined by the presence or degree of one or more independent variables CONTROL: a standard against which other conditions can be compared in a scientific experiment SOURCES OF ERROR IN EXPERIMENTS: - Instrumental error (lack of calibration) - Personal error (inaccurate observations) - Sampling error (sample size too small or not random) - Replication error (lack of consistency and accuracy) - Experimental design - Measurement error (lack of accuracy and precision) http://www.sciencebuddies.org/mentoring/project_scientific_method.shtml BASIC STEPS FOR AN EXPERIMENT: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. plan the research including determining information sources, research subject selection, and ethical considerations for the proposed research and method, design the experiment concentrating on the system model and the interaction of independent and dependent variables, summarize a collection of observations to feature their commonality by suppressing details (descriptive statistics), reach consensus about what the observations tell us about the world we observe (statistical inference), document and present the results of the study. TYPES OF OBSERVATIONS: Qualitative – described by words or terms rather than numbers and including subjective descriptions in terms of variables such as color, shape, and smell; often recorded using terms, photographs, or drawings Quantitative – numerical values derived from counts or measurements of a variable; frequently require some kind of instrument use in recording REPLICATION OF EXPERIMENTS: WHY? - shows how variable the response can be - limited resources may affect results; need to determine a compromise between resources and methods - need to show a difference between pairs of means - reliability of results - consistency of methods and procedures and equipment - analysis of data and interpretation of data to form conclusions - ability to form a scientifically literate viewpoint with valid supporting data GOAL 2: Develop an understanding of the physical, chemical, and cellular basis of life.      Structure and Functions of Organic Molecules (carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids) Structure and Functions of Cells, Cellular Organelles, Cell Specialization, Communication Among Cells Cell as a Living System, Homeostasis, Cellular Transport, Energy Use and Release in Biochemical Reactions Structure and Function of Enzymes, Importance in Biological Systems Bioenergetic Reactions, Aerobic / Anaerobic Respiration, Photosynthesis ORGANIC MOLECULES: Organic compounds contain carbon and are found in all living things. - Carbohydrates major source of energy and include sugars and starches made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen with a 2:1 ratio of hydrogen to oxygen plants and animals use carbohydrates for maintaining structure within the cells - Proteins Nitrogen-containing compounds made up of chains of amino acids 20 amino acids can combine to form a great variety of protein molecules can compose enzymes, hormones, antibodies, and structural components - Lipids water-insoluble (fats and oils) made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen; composed of glycerol and fatty acid provide insulation, store energy, cushion internal organs, found in biological membranes saturated (with hydrogen, single bonds, see example ) and unsaturated (double bonds) - Nucleic Acids direct the instruction of proteins genetic information an organism receives from its parents two types: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid) CELL ORGANELLES: - Chloroplast – capture solar energy for photosynthesis (plant cells, some algae) - Golgi Body – package, distribute products - Lysosomes – digests excess products and food particles - Mitochondria – transform energy through respiration - Nucleus – contains DNA which controls cellular activities - Ribosome – produce proteins - Vacuole – store substances - Cell (plasma) membrane – phospholipid bilayer that protects and encloses the cell; controls transport; maintains homeostasis - Cell wall – rigid second layer that protects and encloses the cell (plant cells and some bacteria) - Cytoplasm – fluid-like substance that contains various membrane-bound structures (organelles) that perform various functions - Endoplasmic Reticulum – site of chemical reactions - ROUGH: contains ribosomes - SMOOTH: lipid production - Cytoskeleton – provides internal structure - MICROFILAMENTS: fibers - MICROTUBULES: cylinders CELL TYPES: - Unicellular – organism that exists as a singular, independent cell - Multicellular – organism that exists as specialized groups of cells; cells are organized into tissues that perform the same function; tissues form organs and organs make up an organ system - Prokaryote – has nuclear material in the center of the cell, but is not enclosed by a nuclear membrane; no membranebound organelles; found in bacteria and blue-green bacteria - Eukaryote – contain a clearly defined nucleus enclosed by a nuclear membrane and membrane-bound organelles; found in plants, animals, fungi, and protists CARBOHYDRATE (Sugar – Glucose) PROTEIN (One Amino Acid) LIPID NUCLEIC ACID (One Nucleotide) CELL THEORY: - The cell is the basic unit of life. - All organisms are composed of cells - All cells come from pre-existing cells. CELL SPECIALIZATION: - cells >>>> tissues >>>> organs >>>> organ systems >>>> organism - each cell performs a specific function for each tissue or organ - as cells mature, they shape and contents change - as cells become specialized they may contain organelles that are NOT common to all cells (for example: plastids, cell wall, vacuole, centriole) - design and shape of a cell is dictated by its function and the conditions under which it works - multicellular organisms exhibit greater cellular specialization, such as red blood cells, nerve cells, and gland cells CELL TRANSPORT: - Passive Transport – movement of substances across the plasma membrane without the use of the cell’s energy (with the concentration gradient) 1. DIFFUSION – movement of substances across the plasma membrane from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration 2. OSMOSIS – diffusion of water across the plasma membrane from areas of high concentration to areas of lower concentration 3. FACILITATED TRANSPORT – a carrier molecule embedded in the plasma membrane transports a substance across the plasma membrane following the high-to-low concentration gradient - Active Transport – movement of substances across the plasma membrane that requires the use of the cell’s energy and carrier molecules; substances are moving from an area of low concentration to an area of higher concentration (against the concentration gradient) 1. ENDOCYTOSIS – large particles are brought into the cell 2. EXOCYTOSIS – large particles leave the cell - HOMEOSTASIS – internal equilibrium; the plasma membrane regulates what enters and leaves the cell; a selectively permeable membrane only allows certain substances to pass through - Effect of Concentration on a Cell 1. HYPOTONIC – water moves in; cell bursts 2. HYPERTONIC – water moves out; cell shrivels 3. ISOTONIC – no net movement; cell maintains equilibrium HOMEOSTASIS: Self-regulating mechanism that maintains internal conditions (with individual cells and within organs, systems) Example: body temperature, respiration, nutritional balance, etc. Cells communicate their needs to each other mainly through their cell membranes by releasing chemical messengers that, ultimately, tell the hypothalamus gland in the brain that a change needs to be made in the interstitial fluid. Since it is the ruler of homeostasis, the hypothalamus sends neural and chemical signals to other glands, tissues, organs, and organ systems to adjust the internal environment, the interstitial fluid, so that it is more suitable for all the cells at that particular time. And since we are always changing what we are doing, homeostasis needs to change along with our activities, both day and night. This constantly changing internal environment is the process of homeostasis. Negative Feedback: Glucose / Insulin levels in cells Positive Feedback: Blood platelets / Blood clotting BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS: chemical bonds are formed and broken within living things creating chemical reactions that impact the ability to maintain life and carry out life functions Cellular Respiration – food molecules are converted to energy; there are three stages to cellular respiration; the first stage is called glycolysis and is anaerobic (no oxygen is required); the next two stages are called the citric acid cycle and the electron transport chain and are aerobic (oxygen is required) C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + ENERGY (36 ATP) Photosynthesis – plant cells capture energy from the Sun and convert it into food (carbohydrates); plant cells then convert the carbohydrates into energy during cellular respiration; the ultimate source of energy for all living things is the Sun (in Chemosynthesis, organisms use sulfur or nitrogen as the main energy source) 6CO2 + 6H2O + ENERGY(from sunlight)  C6H12O6 + 6O2 ATP – ATP is a molecule that stores and releases the energy in its bonds when the cell needs it; removing a phosphate group (P) releases energy for chemical reactions to occur in the cell and ATP becomes ADP; when the cell has energy, the energy is stored in the bond when the phosphate group is added to the ADP ATP  ADP + P + ENERGY Fermentation – when cells are not provided with oxygen in a timely manner, this process occurs to continue producing ATP until oxygen is available again; glucose is broken down; there are two types of fermentation Lactic Acid Fermentation (muscle cells) Glucose  Lactic Acid + 2ATP Alcoholic Fermentation (plant cells) Glucose  CO2 + Alcohol + 2ATP AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION: Aerobic Respiration – requires the presence of oxygen release of energy from the breakdown of glucose (or another organic compound) in the presence of oxygen energy released is used to make ATP, which provides energy for bodily processes takes place in almost all living things Anaerobic Respiration – occurs in the absence of oxygen breakdown of food substances in the absence of oxygen with the production of a small amount of energy produces less energy than aerobic respiration often called fermentation seen as an adaptation for organisms that live in environments that lack oxygen COMPARISON OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION, PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND CHEMOSYNTHESIS CELLULAR RESPIRATION PHOTOSYNTHESIS CHEMOSYNTHESIS Food Broken Down Food Synthesized Food Synthesized Energy from Glucose Released Energy from Sun stored in Glucose Energy from Methane or Inorganic Material Carbon Dioxide given off Carbon Dioxide taken in (ex: H gas or Hydrogen sulfide) Oxygen taken in Oxygen given off Organisms often called chemotrophs Produces Carbon Dioxide and Water Produces Sugars (Glucose) from PGAL Organisms called extremophiles Does not require Light Requires Light Live in environments without oxygen Occurs in ALL Living Cells Occurs only in presence of Chlorophyll Anaerobic Bacteria Organisms often called Heterotrophs Organisms called Autotrophs Habitats: hydrothermal vents ENZYMES: Enzymes are special proteins that regulate nearly every biochemical reaction in the cell. Different reactions require different enzymes. Enzymes function to: Provide energy to cells Build new cells Aid in digestion Break down complex molecules (“substrate” = reactant) Catalysts (speed up chemical reactions without being used up or altered) Factors that affect enzymes: pH, temperature, and quantity GOAL 3: Develop an understanding of the continuity of life and the changes of organisms over time.  Molecular Basis of Heredity, DNA Replication, Protein Synthesis (Transcription, Translation), Gene Regulation  Characteristics of Sexual and Asexual Reproduction  Patterns of Inheritance, Dominant / Recessive / Intermediate Traits, Multiple Alleles, Polygenic Inheritance, Sex-Linked Traits, Independent Assortment, Test Cross, Pedigrees, Punnett Squares  Impact of Advances in Genomics on Individuals and Society, Human Genome Project, Applications of Biotechnology  Development of Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection, Origin and History of Life, Fossil and Biochemical Evidence, Mechanisms of Evolution, Applications (Pesticides and Antibiotic Resistance) DNA & RNA: - Nucleic acids composed of nucleotides - Nucleotides composed of: Phosphate group Sugar Nitrogenous base COMPARISON OF DNA AND RNA DNA RNA Deoxyribonucleic acid Double-stranded, twisted helix Never leaves the nucleus Nitrogenous bases: adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine (Guanine w/Cytosine, Adenine w/Thymine) (Purines opposite the Pyrimidines) (held together by weak hydrogen bonds) Sugar: deoxyribose Controls production of all proteins DNA Replication: (DNA unravels and each strand makes a new exact copy so that when mitosis takes place, each cell has the exact copy of DNA) DNA coiled into chromosomes in nucleus Tiny sections of DNA are called genes Sequence of bases determines sequence of amino acids in proteins Ribonucleic acid Single-stranded Leaves the nucleus Nitrogenous bases: adenine, uracil, guanine, cytosine (Guanine w/Cytosine, Adenine w/Uracil) Sugar: ribose Three major types of RNA (Ribosomal – rRNA; Messenger – mRNA; Transfer – tRNA) Leaves the nucleus to carry out functions in cytoplasm Transcription: (mRNA is made from one strand of DNA, carries message to ribosomes) Translation: (mRNA translated into a protein at the ribosomes; tRNA transfers amino acids from cytoplasm to ribosomes) DNA Protein Synthesis: Transcription and Translation Asexual and Sexual Reproduction: Asexual Reproduction – a single parent produces one or more identical offspring by dividing into two cells - mitosis (protists, arthropods, bacteria by binary fission, fungi, plants); produces large numbers of offspring - offspring are clones of parents (genetically identical) - common in unicellular organisms, good for stable environments - budding, binary fission, conjugation - quick process (low energy requirement) – produces high number of offspring Sexual Reproduction – pattern of reproduction that involves the production and fusion of haploid sex cells; haploid sperm from father fertilizes haploid egg from mother to make a diploid zygote that develops into a multicellular organism through mitosis - results in genetic variation (diversity) - common in multicellular organisms (external or internal fertilization); good for changing environments - slow process (high energy requirement) – produces low number of offspring - meiosis = formation of sex cells (gametes) CELL DIVISION: process of copying and dividing the entire cell the cell grows, prepares for division, and then divides to form new daughter cells allows unicellular organisms to duplicate in a process called asexual reproduction allows multicellular organisms to grow, develop from a single cell into a multicellular organism, make other cells to repair and replace worn out cells three types: binary fission (bacteria and fungi), mitosis, and meiosis COMPARISON OF MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS MITOSIS MEIOSIS Cell cycle consists of interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis Consists of two cell divisions, but only one chromosome replication Interphase – longest part of cell cycle (sometimes called reduction division) Growth, metabolism, and preparation for division occurs Each cell division consists of prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase Duplicates chromosomes (DNA Replication) Mitosis – division of nucleus of the cell Occurs only in sex cells – to produce more sex cells (gametes) Prophase - duplicated chromosomes and spindle fibers First Meiosis Division Produces cells containing ½ # of double stranded chromosomes appear Metaphase – duplicated chromosomes line up randomly Second Meiosis Division in center of cell between spindle fibers Results in formation of four cells Each cell w/ ½ # of single-stranded chromosomes Anaphase – duplicated chromosomes pulled to opposite ends of cell (haploid cells) -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------Telophase – nuclear membrane forms around Sperm chromosomes at each end of cell; spindle fibers disappear; chromosomes disperse Each primary sperm cell develops into four haploid cells of equal size. As cells mature, the cells lose most of their cytoplasm and develop a long Cytokinesis – division of plasma membrane; two daughter cells whip-like tail for movement. result with exact genetic information (in plant cells a “cell plate” forms along the center of the cell and Egg Each primary egg cell develops into one large haploid cell and three cuts the cell in half; cell plate forms new cell walls once the plasma smaller haploid cells called polar bodies. The first meiosis division membrane divides) produces one large cell and one polar body. The second meiosis causes RESULTS: the large cell to produce one egg cell and a polar body; the original Two daughter cells (body cells) Same number of chromosomes as original cell (humans = 46) smaller polar body divides into two polar bodies. The polar bodies eventually disintegrate. The final egg cell is provided with the larger Cells are diploid (human diploid # = 46 or 23 homologous pairs) supply of stored nutrients RESULTS: Four daughter cells (sex cells) ½ # of chromosomes (haploid) with genetic variation (n = 23) Sex cells combine during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid individual GENETICS: – branch of biology that deals with heredity – Gregor Mendel experimented with sweet pea plants in 1800s – Trait – characteristic an individual receives from its parents – Gene – carries instructions responsible for expression of traits; a pair of inherited genes controls a trait; one member of the pair comes from each parent; often called alleles – Homozygous – two alleles of a pair are identical (BB or bb) – Heterozygous – two alleles of a pair are different (Bb); often called “hybrid” – Dominant – controlling allele; designated with a capital letter – Recessive – hidden allele; designated with lower-case letters – Genotype – genetic makeup of an organism (represented by the letters) – Phenotype – physical appearance of an organism (description of the letters) – Monohybrid – cross involving one trait – Dihybrid – cross involving two traits – Punnett Square – graphic organizer used to show the probable results of a genetic cross – Pedigree – graphic organizer to map genetic traits between generations – Karyotype – chart of metaphase chromosome pairs to study chromosome number / diseases – Test Cross – mating of an individual of unknown genotype with an individual of known genotype; can help to determine the unknown genotype of the parent MENDELS LAWS OF HEREDITY: 1. Law of Dominance - the dominant allele will prevent the recessive allele from being expressed - recessive allele will appear when it is paired with another recessive allele in the offspring 2. Law of Segregation - gene pairs separate when gametes (sex cells) are formed - each gamete has only one allele of each gene pair 3. Law of Independent Assortment - different pairs of genes separate independently of each other when gametes are formed (Anaphase II in Meiosis) MUTATIONS: - change in genetic code - passed from one cell to new cells - transmitted to offspring if occurs in sex cells - most have no effect - Gene Mutation – change in a single gene - Chromosome Mutation – change in many genes - Can be spontaneous or caused by environmental mutagens (radiation, chemicals, etc.) PATTERNS OF INHERITANCE: Sex Chromosomes - 23rd pair of chromosomes; Males = XY; Females = XX Sex-Linked Traits - traits associated with particular sexes - X-Linked Traits inherited on X chromosome from mother (ex: colorblindness, baldness, hemophilia) Linked Traits - genes are linked on chromosomes; genes on same chromosome are inherited together; ex: red hair and freckles - one trait controlled by many genes (ex: hair color, eye color, skin pigment) Multiple Alleles - presence of more than two alleles for a trait (ex: eye color) Polygenic Inheritance - one trait controlled by many genes (ex: hair color, skin color); genes may be on the same or different chromosomes Codominance - phenotypes of both homozygous parents are produced in heterozygous offspring so that both alleles are equally expressed (ex: black chicken + white chicken = checkered chickens), (ex: sickle cell anemia) Incomplete Dominance - phenotype of a heterozygote is intermediate between the two homozygous parents; neither allele is dominant, but combine to display a new trait (ex: red flower + white flower = pink flower) Dominance / Recessive ness - observed trait is controlled by a homozygous genotype - ex: dominance disease – Huntington’s; ex: recessive disease – Cystic Fibrosis and Tay Sach’s SOURCES OF VARIATION: Crossing Over - genes from one chromosome are exchanged with genes from another chromosome - occurs regularly during meiosis and leads to greater genetic variation - many different phenotypes are a result of the random assortment of genes that occurs during sexual reproduction Nondisjunction - during meiosis, homologous pairs of chromosomes don’t separate - results in half the sex cells having an extra chromosome and the other half having one less chromosome - if fertilization occurs with an abnormal sex cell, zygote formed will have either one extra (trisomy) or one less (monosomy) than the diploid number (ex: Down’s Syndrome caused by extra 21st chromosome) Genetic Variation - influenced by crossing over, mutations, genetic engineering, random assortment of genes, natural selection - genetic variation controlled by sexual reproduction (does not occur in asexual reproduction) - gene regulation vs. gene expression – the expression of genes is regulated by turning genes on / off or amount of action - environment can influence magnitude of gene expression (ex: improper nutrition can prevent proper bone growth) KARYOTYPE LAWS OF PROBABILITY TO PREDICT INHERITANCE: - Punnett Squares provide a shorthand way of finding expected proportions of possible genotypes and phenotypes in the offspring of a cross. - Fertilization must occur at random - Results are expected, not actual; results based on chance - Results predicted by probability are more likely to be seen when there is a large number of offspring - a monohybrid cross contains four boxes; a cross between two heterozygous individuals would reveal a 1:2:1 genotype ration and a 3:1 phenotype ratio in the offspring; the probability that the offspring will show a dominant phenotype is ¾, or 75% - a dihybrid cross contains sixteen boxes; a dihybrid cross reveals two traits for both parents; a cross between two heterozygous individuals would reveal a 9:3:3:1 phenotype ratio in the offspring GENETIC ENGINEERING (GENOMICS): - sometimes called biotechnology - process of transferring a gene (DNA) from one organism to another - Organisms with transferred gene now produce “recombined” genetic code ( called “recombinant DNA”) - Ex: insulin produced through bacteria - Ex: oil-eating bacteria - Has application in medicine, environment, industry, agriculture, selective breeding - Human Genome Project - DNA Fingerprinting KARYOTYPE: to identify gender or chromosomal abnormalities PEDIGREE PUNNETT SQUARE EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION: - Fossils – may appear in rocks, ice, amber; when fossils are arranged in order of their age, the fossil record provides a series of changes that occurred over time; comparison of anatomical characteristics reveals shared ancestry - DNA - when gene or protein sequences from organisms are arranged, species thought to be closely related based on fossil evidence are seen to be more similar than species thought to be distantly related - Embryology – embryos of different vertebrates look alike in their early stages, giving the superficial appearance of a relationship ORIGINS OF LIFE: Biogenesis – idea that living organisms came only from other living organisms Spontaneous Generation – mistaken idea that life can arise from nonliving materials; sometimes called Abiogenesis - Francesco Redi performed controlled experiments that tested spontaneous generation of maggots from decaying meat – disproved idea. - Louis Pasteur performed controlled experiments that tested spontaneous generation of microorganisms in nutrient broth – disproved idea. Protocells – large, ordered structure, enclosed by a membrane, that carries out some life activities, such as growth and division; name given to first living cells, possibly photosynthetic prokaryotes; may have arisen through organic evolution; eukaryotes may have arisen through endosymbiosis (symbiotic relationship between prokaryotes) NATURAL SELECTION and THEORY OF EVOLUTION: - proposed by Charles Darwin - process by which organisms that are best suited to environment survive and pass genetic traits on to offspring - has no effect on increased production of offspring, fossil formation, or changes in habitat - adaptation – organisms with the most suited traits will survive - evolution – change in a species over time (not a single individual, but the group) - microevolution – evolution that occurs within the species level; results from genetic variation and natural selection within a population antibiotic resistance pesticide resistance - macroevolution – evolution that occurs between different species; focuses on how groups of organisms change - convergent evolution – two species evolve similarly - divergent evolution – a group of species evolve differently - adaptive radiation – a group of species adapt separately to environments - speciation – formation of a new species - geographic isolation – physical barrier divides a population, results in individuals that cannot mate, leads to a new species - reproductive isolation – genetic mutation or behavioral change prevent mating GOAL 5: Develop an understanding of ecological relationships among organisms.  Interrelationships among Organisms / Populations / Communities / Ecosystems, Techniques of Field Ecology, Abiotic / Biotic Factors, Carrying Capacity  Flow of Energy and Cycling of Matter in the Ecosystem, Relationship of Carbon Cycle to Photosynthesis and Respiration, Trophic Levels, Direction and Efficiency of Energy Transfer  Human Population and its Impact on Local Ecosystems and Global Environments, Historic and Potential Changes in Population, Factors associated with Population Change, Climate Change, Resource Use, Sustainable Practices / Stewardship SUN >>>>> ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM GRASS >>>>> MICE >>>>> HAWK Sunlight is the main energy source for living things. Energy flows through an ecosystem from the sun to organisms within the ecosystem in one direction. Two main groups of organisms in the ecosystem are the producers and consumers. Producers – autotrophs, use sun’s energy to make their own food, plants (grass) Consumers – heterotrophs, cannot make their own food, eat other living things to get their energy (mice- primary consumers; and hawksecondary consumer) STRUCTURE OF AN ECOSYSTEM Organism >>>>> Species >>>>> Population >>>>> Community >>>>> Ecosystem >>>>> Environment Species – group of organisms that can interbreed Community – groups of interacting populations Habitat – place where an organism lives GROUPS OF ORGANISMS Energy Source Example Eat plants Deer Eat other animals Lion Eat plants and Human animals Decomposer Break down dead Bacteria organisms Fungi Consumer Herbivore Carnivore Omnivore & Population – units of single species Ecosystem – groups of interacting communities Niche – organism’s role within its habitat SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS: Symbiosis – permanent, close association between one or more organisms of different species Mutualism – a symbiotic relationship in which both species benefit (ex: in subtropical regions, ants protect acacia trees by fighting invaders, acacia tree provides nectar to ants) Commensalism – symbiotic relationship in which one species benefits and the other species is neither harmed nor benefited (ex: Spanish moss grows on and hangs from limbs of trees, but does not obtain any nutrients from tree, nor harm the tree) Parasitism – symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits at the expense of another, usually another species (ex: parasites such as bacteria, roundworms, tapeworms live in the intestines of organisms to obtain nutrients and reproduce, but cause disease in the organisms) FOOD CHAIN: Path of energy from producer to consumer Each level is called a trophic level (trophic = energy) Approximately 10% energy is transferred to next level 90% used for personal metabolism and development FOOD WEB: Interconnected food chains Shows all possible feeding relationships at each trophic level in a community ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID: Representation of energy transfer Pyramid of Energy – each level represents energy available at that level, 90% decline Pyramid of Biomass – each level represents amount level above needs to consume Pyramid of Numbers – each level represents number of organisms consumed by level above it SOME EXAMPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL LIMITING FACTORS Biotic (living) Abiotic (nonliving) Plants Climate Animals Light Bacteria Soil Prey Water Food Sources Shelter (Nutrients) Pollution SPECIES / POPULATION SURVIVAL: - Natural Selection – mechanism for change in populations; occurs when organisms with favorable variations survive, reproduce, and pass their variations to the next generation; “survival of the fittest” - Adaptation (Behavioral or Physiological) – evolution of a structure, behavior, or internal process that enables an organism to respond to environmental factors and live to produce offspring - Limiting Factors (Environmental) – any biotic or abiotic factor that restricts the existence, numbers, reproduction, or distribution of organisms - Genetic Mutations – any change or random error in a DNA sequence (one gene or many; somatic cells or gametes) - Biodiversity – variety of life in an area; usually measured as the number of species that live in an area CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS: require food for energy to carry out life processes use energy to maintain homeostasis respond to stimuli in the environment grow and develop reproduce similar offspring pass genetic information to their offspring composed of cells composed of organic based compounds ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS: - type of life cycle found in some algae, fungi, and all plants where an organism alternates between a haploid (n) gametophyte generation and a diploid (2n) sporophyte generation CYCLES: (Matter cannot be created nor destroyed, but can be converted/recycled to other forms) Water Cycle – water is recycled through evaporation, condensation, precipitation, runoff, groundwater, aquifers, respiration, transpiration, excretion, decomposition Nitrogen Cycle – producers take in nitrogen compounds in soil and pass to consumers that consume the producers; decomposers (bacteria) break down nitrogen compounds and release nitrogen gas to air or usable nitrogen so the soil Carbon Cycle – carbon is recycled through respiration, photosynthesis, fuel combustion, decomposition; carbon can be atmospheric or dissolved, or can be found in organic compounds within the body ECOLOGY FIELD STUDY: - using specific methods and procedures to study plants and animals in their natural setting, and to observe interrelationships of living and nonliving factors in a specific habitat - observations might include: temperature recordings, location, soil description, number and kinds of plants and animals, food source(s), rainfall amount, change in growth, interactions between organisms, identification of organisms into genus and species, temperature variations from morning to afternoon to night, light levels (at different times of day), sound levels (at different times of day), photographs, diagrams of levels (ground level, canopy level, etc.) and the animals and plants at each level, water sampling, quadrant studies, graphs of growth - field study requires the collection of data and the analysis of data through graphs, charts, diagrams, etc. - field study also requires the recording of all observations, data, etc. into a legitimate field notebook that would include personal interpretations, photographs, newspaper clippings, etc. CARBON CYCLE NITROGEN CYCLE FLUCTUATIONS IN CARRYING CAPACITY TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS (BIOMES): AQUATIC: based on flow, depth, temperature, chemistry TERRESTRIAL: based on geography, rainfall, temperature Tropical Rain Forest – significant diversity, warm, moist Savanna – grassland with isolated trees, warm yearround, consistent rainfall, borders deserts Desert – hot, dry, minimal rainfall, middle latitudes Temperate Grassland – variety of grasses, cold winters, warm summers, seasonal rainfall, borders savannas Temperate Forest – deciduous, seasonal growth and weather patterns Taiga – coniferous, borders tundra Tundra – cold, frozen Marine – oceans, saltwater, large diversity Freshwater – lakes, streams, lower diversity SUCCESSION: - orderly, natural changes, and species replacements that take place in communities of an ecosystem over time Primary Succession – colonization of barren land by pioneer organisms (soil must be developed) Secondary Succession – sequence of changes that take place after a community is disrupted by natural disasters or human actions (soil already present) IMPACT OF HUMANS ON THE ENVIRONMENT: caused extinction of species through hunting, fishing, agriculture, industry, urban development growing population = greater demands on environment affected quality and quantity of land, air, water resources Pollution = pollutants Air Pollution = smog, acid rain, dust, smoke, gases, fog, carbon dioxide Water Pollution = sewers, industry, farms, homes, chemical waste, fertilizer, dirty dish water Land Pollution = landfills, dumpsites, runoff, negligence, urban wastes CONSERVATION EFFORTS: conserve energy resources protect and conserve material resources control pollution (recapture wastes, carpooling, solid waste neutralization) wildlife conservation protect animals from habitat loss, overhunting, pollution reduce, reuse, recycle programs sanitation and waste disposal programs CRITICAL ISSUES: Global Warming, Pesticides, Population Growth FACTORS THAT AFFECT POPULATION CHANGE: - natural increase of a population depends on the number of births and deaths - if births outnumber deaths, there will be an increase in population - growth rate of a population measured in terms of birth rate (number of births per 1000 people per year) and death rate (number of deaths per 1000 people per year) - fertility rates (number of babies), life expectancy, migration / immigration also contribute to population change - study of population is called demography; a census is a measure of the population at a particular time FACTORS THAT AFFECT CLIMATE CHANGE: - distance from the sea - ocean currents - Direction of prevailing winds - relief (altitude / mountains) - proximity to the equator - El Nino phenomenon - human population growth - pollution - industry FACTORS THAT AFFECT RESOURCE USE AND SUSTAINABILITY: - population count - recycling programs - number of producers and consumers - conservation programs - percapita consumption - substitution programs - rate of industrial, urban, and infrastructure development - wealth of country / municipality - amount of precipitation - renewable or nonrenewable status - pollution / degradation of land - industry, manufacturing, commercialism