The Reign of Probus 276–282 CE

1. The Reign of Probus (276–282 CE) ●​ Probus, a skilled and disciplined military leader, ruled after the assassination of Tacitus. ●​ Rebuilt stability in the empire following decades of crisis. ●​ Focused on military reforms, frontier defenses, and agricultural projects. ●​ “After the reign of Aurelian, a vigorous prince, both the laws and the helm of the state were directed by Probus in accordance with the wish of the senate and people” (p. 419). ●​ Death of Probus: ○​ Killed in a military mutiny by his own soldiers, despite being a respected ruler. ○​ His death plunged the empire back into chaos, leading to fears of another Domitian or Nero. ○​ “A mighty disaster, coming like a shipwreck or a conflagration, when the soldiers had been fired with a fated madness and this great prince had been removed from our midst” (p. 419) 2. The Rise of Carus (282–283 CE ●​ Carus was chosen by the army after Probus' assassination. ●​ Faced uncertainty over his origins: ○​ “Onesimus maintains that Carus' parents were Illyrians, but he himself was born and educated at Rome” (p. 423). ○​ Others claim he was from Illyricum or even Carthage. ●​ Successful Military Campaigns: ○​ Launched aggressive attacks on the Sarmatians and Persians. ○​ Captured Mesopotamia and advanced to Ctesiphon. ○​ Earned the title “Conqueror of Persia”. ●​ Mysterious Death: ○​ Died either from disease or a lightning strike while in his tent. ○​ “At the time of his death there suddenly occurred such violent thunder that many, it is said, died of sheer fright” (p. 431). ○​ Some believed fate had prevented any Roman emperor from advancing beyond Ctesiphon. ○​ “There is a certain decree of Fate that no Roman emperor may advance beyond Ctesiphon” (p. 439). 3. The Rise and Fall of Numerian (283–284 CE) ●​ Numerian, Carus' younger son, was known for his intelligence and eloquence. ●​ Accompanied his father on the Persian campaign but developed an eye disease that left him unable to lead. ●​ His father-in-law, Aper, murdered him in an attempt to seize power. ●​ The army discovered his decomposing body only after weeks of being misled by Aper. ●​ Diocletian avenged Numerian’s murder: ○​ “Diocletian, having ascended the tribunal, was hailed as Augustus, and when someone asked how Numerian had been slain, he drove his sword through Aper, saying, 'It is he who contrived Numerian's death'” (p. 437). ●​ Fulfillment of a Prophecy: ○​ A Druidess had once prophesied that Diocletian would become emperor after slaying a “boar” (Aper in Latin). 4. The Rule of Carinus (283–285 CE) ●​ Carinus, Carus' elder son, was left in charge of the Western Empire. ●​ Known for debauchery, corruption, and incompetence. ●​ “He was the most polluted of men, an adulterer and a constant corrupter of youth” (p. 441). ●​ Political and Military Failures: ○​ Appointed unqualified officials, including a doorkeeper as city-prefect. ○​ Wrote arrogant letters to the Senate, disregarding traditional institutions. ○​ Spent lavishly on extravagant banquets, jewelry, and games. ○​ Engaged in nine marriages, divorcing some wives while they were pregnant. ●​ Final Battle Against Diocletian: ○​ Despite his excesses, he was a capable military leader and fought several battles against Diocletian. ○​ Ultimately defeated and killed near Margus (285 CE). 5. The Legacy of Probus, Carus, Carinus, and Numerian ●​ These reigns marked the final phase of the Crisis of the Third Century. ●​ The empire was plagued by instability, with emperors frequently rising and falling through military coups. ●​ “Fortune takes pleasure in nothing so much as in changing, by means of a varied succession of events, all that pertains to the public business” (p. 429). ●​ Stability only returned with the rise of Diocletian and Maximian: ○​ “The gods gave us Diocletian and Maximian to be our princes, joining to these great men Galerius and Constantius” (p. 447). ●​ Diocletian’s rule marked a turning point, ushering in a new era of administrative and military reforms.