QUESTIONS FROM TEXTBOOK READING MATERIAL What is development? Lifespan development concerns continuities and changes in a person’s long-term growth, feelings and patterns of thinking. It occurs in the physical, cognitive and psychosocial domains. The domains of development interact in many ways, and individuals always develop as whole persons rather than in separate parts Why study development? Studying development can help you develop appropriate expectations about human behaviour and its changes. It can help you respond appropriately to individuals’ behaviour and recognise cases in which unusual behaviours are a cause for concern. Studying development can also give you knowledge and an understanding of your past How has society’s view of infancy, childhood and adolescence changed over time? Until just a few hundred years ago, childhood and adolescence were not regarded as distinct periods of life. Social changes, including the Industrial Revolution, led to an awareness of children’s unique needs and vulnerability, but also contributed to modern (and mistaken) views of children being incompetent, passive and unimportant. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the first research studies of children consisted of baby biographies and structured observations of children at specific ages What general issues are important in developmental psychology? Developmental psychology is not dissimilar to other forms of developmental study. However, it also has a distinctive emphasis on four themes: continuity within change; lifelong growth; changing meanings and vantage points; and diversity among individuals How do developmental psychologists study development? Research about developmental psychology tries to follow scientific methods: formulating research questions, stating them as hypotheses, testing the hypotheses, and interpreting and publicising the results. Studies vary in the time frame (cross-sectional, or longitudinal), in the extent of control of the context (naturalistic or experimental), and in sampling strategies (surveys, interviews or case studies). Cross-sectional studies compare individuals of different ages at one point in time. Longitudinal studies observe human change directly following the same individuals over relatively long periods of time. Naturalistic methods observe individuals in natural contexts as much as possible. Experimental methods try to control or hold constant extraneous conditions while varying only one or two specified variables. Surveys, interviews and case studies each sample different numbers of people and provide different levels of context in their information What ethical considerations should guide the study of development? Ethical considerations guide how development can be studies, sometimes ruling out certain studies altogether. Generally, studies are guided by principles of confidentiality, full disclosure or purposes and respect for the individual’s freedom to participate. Research about children and vulnerable adults should strive for informed consent from participants and their parents / guardians. The specific ethical concerns in studying development depend on the age or developmental level of the individuals studied, as well as the content of the study itself What are the developmental theories and how are they useful? Theories are useful in organising and explaining the process of development and in stimulating and guiding developmental research, theory and practice. Theories differ in the degree to which they emphasise maturation versus experience, continuous versus stage-like development, the individual’s active versus passive participation, and the breadth of theoretical focus How have psychodynamic theories influenced thinking about development? Freud’s and Erikson’s theories see development as a dynamic process that occurs in a series of stages, each involving psychological conflicts that the developing person must resolve. According to Freud, personality development is energised by the conflicting functions of the id, ego and superego. Erikson’s theory outlines eight developmental stages that encompass the entire lifespan; by resolving the basic crisis at each stage – such as trust vs mistrust in infancy or intimacy vs isolation in young adulthood – the developing person attains what Erikson terms virtue. So, for instance, the infant who resolves the trust/mistrust crisis attains the virtue of hope; the young adult who resolves the intimacy/isolation crisis attains love. Object relations approaches such as Mahler’s and Stern’s emphasise development as resulting from a child’s mental representations of early social and emotional relationships with parents and important others. Psychodynamic theories help us to understand the importance of attachment in intimate relationships throughout life and to conceptualise the process of identity formation in adolescence and adulthood, to name just two lifespan applications How have developmental theories based on learning theories contributed to our understanding of developmental change? Pavlov’s theory emphasises learning through classical conditioning as the main process through which developmental changes occur. Skinner’s operant conditioning theory emphasises the influence of reinforcement, punishment, extinction and shaping on developmental change. Bandura’s social cognitive theory emphasises reciprocal and interactional processes involving direct observational learning, modelling and vicarious reinforcement. Learning theories have application across the lifespan, particularly in helping us to understand the influence of learning on development and helping individuals modify or eliminate problematic behaviours and learn new, desirable behaviours How do cognitive developmental theories help us to understand changes in thinking and problem solving throughout the lifespan? Piaget’s theory explains the underlying structures and processes involved in the development of children’s thinking and problem solving. Piaget suggested that thinking develops in a series of increasingly complex and sophisticated stages, each of which incorporates the achievements of those preceding it. The developing person achieves new ways of thinking and problem solving through the joint processes of assimilation (fitting a new scheme into an existing one) and accommodation (changing an existing scheme to meet the challenges of a new situation). Neo-Piagetian theorists Case and Fischer emphasis the role of mental space, skills acquisition, and information-processing capacity in cognitive development. Information-processing theory focuses on the steps involved in thinking, Information is stored in the sensory register, then in STM, and finally in LTM. As people grow older, they experience cognitive changes in control processes, metacognition and their knowledge bases. Cognitive theories help us to understand and foster intellectual development, problem solving abilities and critical thinking skills throughout the lifespan. How have contextual approaches to development broadened our view of developmental change? Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory proposes that the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem form interactive and overlapping contexts for development. Vygotsky emphasises the contribution of history and culture to development, which takes place within a child’s zone of proximal development. Lerner’s contextual approach emphasises the dynamic, interactive, reciprocal relationships between individual development and changes in the contexts in which development occurs, such as education, work and family. Elder suggests education, work and family create the social trajectories, or pathways, that guide individual development. Ethological theory focuses on the development roles of behavioural dispositions and traits, such as temperament and attachment, that are thought to have evolutionary survival value for the human species. These theories are very useful in explaining how development throughout the life course interacts with and is influenced by the context in which the development occurs. How do adult developmental changes differ from child and adolescent changes? Normative-crisis theories focus on fairly predictable changes that occur over the lifespan, particularly during the adult years. Timing-of-events theory emphasises the role of both normative and nonnormative transitions in an individual’s life course and how social expectations may be internalised in a ‘social clock’ against which we judge our own development. Dynamic systems theory views the child’s mind, body, physical and social worlds as a dynamic integrated system. A change in the system leads the child to modify and re-organise their behaviour so the various components of the system work together in a more complex and effective manner. How does comparing developmental theories help us to understand developmental change? Although developmental theories differ in both focus and explanatory concepts, collectively they provide a fairly comprehensive view of the processes of developmental change. By systematically organising what we already know about development and proposing explanations that can be tested through formal and informal observations, developmental theories can be useful for non-experts, as well as experts. READING 3 How many chromosomes does a human cell nucleus contain? 46 chromosomes, arranged in 23 pairs What is a gametes? - The reproductive cells of a child’s parents - The process by which genetic information is combined and transmitted begins with gametes o In the father, the gametes are produced in the testicles, and each is called a sperm cell o In the mother, they develop in the ovaries, and each is called an ovum, or egg cell What is the name of the molecular structure that contains genetic information in the sperm and egg cells? - Genes o The sperm & egg cells contain genetic information in molecular structures called genes, which form threads called chromosomes. Thus, the chromosomes contain the genetic material the child will inherit from the parent. Each human sperm or egg cell contains 23 chromosomes. All other cells of the body contain 46 chromosomes and approximately 100,000 genes. A single chromosome may contain as many as 20,000 genes. True or False. DNA is a double-stranded molecule, which has the appearance of a twisted ladderlike structure. True What is the name of the process through which DNA can duplicate itself? DNA can duplicate itself through the process of mitosis What is the process of mitosis? Mitotic cell division produces nearly all the cells of the body except the gametes. During mitosis, each chromosome replicates to form two chromosomes with identical genetic blueprints. As the cell divides, one member of each identical pair becomes a member of each daughter cell. In this manner, complete genetic endowment is replicated in nearly every cell of the body. What is a genotype? Genotype refers to the specific genetic information a person inherits that has the potential to influence their observable physical or behavioural characteristics or traits, such as eye colour, height, intelligence or shyness. What is a phenotype? - Phenotype refers to the physical and behavioural traits an individual actually exhibits; for example, blue eyes, a height of 165 centimetres, a certain intelligence test score or a certain level of shyness. o A person’s phenotype is always the product of the interactions of that person’s genotype with the environmental influences that occur from the formation of the first cell at conception onward. True or False. Some genes are dominant and others are recessive. True True or False. Genes are inherited in pairs; one from each parent. True What is a dominant gene? In any paired set of genes, the gene with greater influence in determining physical characteristics that are physically visible or manifest. What is a recessive gene? In any paired set of genes, the gene that influences or determines physical characteristics only when no dominant gene is present. What is a zygote? The single new cell formed when a sperm cell attaches itself to the surface of an ovum. What are some prenatal tests and what conditions can these prenatal diagnosis tests detect? - Ultrasound (throughout pregnancy - Conditions detected: o Pregnancy; multiple pregnancies; foetal growth & abnormalities such as limb defects; tubal (ectopic) pregnancy; atypical foetal position. Also used to guide amniocentesis, foetoscopy & chorionic villus sampling. o When used 5 or more times may increase the chances of low birth weight - Amniocentesis (14-18 weeks) - Conditions detected: o Chromosomal disorders such as Down Syndrome; neurological disorders; gender of the baby o Small risk of miscarriage - Chorionic villus sampling (CVS) (9-13 weeks) - Conditions detected: o Tests for more of the same genetic disorders as amniocenteris, but is less sensitive to more subtle abnormalities. o Involves a slightly greater risk of miscarriage than amniocentesis. Also associated with a small risk of limb deformities which increases in risk the earlier the procedure is performed. - Foetoscopy (15-18 weeks) - Conditions detected: o Used to confirm results from prior prenatal tests or to assess the severity of a disability already identified. o Entails some risk of miscarriage. - Maternal serum alphs-foetoprotein (MSAFP) (15-18 weeks) - Conditions detected: o Various problems, including neural tube defects & Down Syndrome; positive first test is followed by additional testing, such as ultrasound & amniocentesis o Percutaneous umbilical blood sampling (PUBS) (18-36 weeks) o Down syndrome, neural tube defects, Tay-Sachs disease, cystic fibrosis, sickle-cell disease; gender of the foetus; foetal infections such as rubella, toxoplasmosis, or HIV What is range of reaction? Range of reaction refers to the range of possible phenotypes as a result of different environments interacting with a specific genotype. While intellectual performance will be retarded or facilitated for all children depending on whether the environment is restricted, average or enriched, the range of potential intellectual performance in reaction to different environments will be limited by the child’s genetic inheritance for intelligence. What are monozygotic twins? Resulting from the splitting of a single fertilised egg and so these twins have identical genetic makeup (Identical twins). What are dizygotic twins? The product of the independent fertilisation of two eggs by two sperm and so these twins share only half of their genes (Fraternal twins). What role does inheritance play in development? Central to our understanding of how development proceeds is a knowledge of the genetic contribution to the emergence of skills and abilities, which ensures an understanding of the natureversus-nurture debate. Research & new evidence provides information on how inheritance & environment interact in development. Genetic research indicates some of the most interesting scientific discoveries to date. Genetics plays a major role in behaviour, and some of the most recent critical discoveries have related to genetic disorders including Down syndrome, Alzheimer’s disease & bipolar disorder. Genetic information is contained in a complex molecule called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Reproductive cells, or gametes, divide by a process called meiosis &recombine into a zygote at conception. Meiosis gives each gamete one-half of its normal number of chromosomes; conception brings the number of chromosomes to normal again & gives the new zygote an equal number of chromosomes from each parent. Other body cells produce new tissue through division of their genes, chromosomes and other cellular parts by means of a process called mitosis. How are genetic differences usually transmitted from one generation to the next? A person’s genotype is the specific patterns of genetic information inherited in their chromosomes & genes at conception. A person’s phenotype is the physical & behavioural traits the person actually shows during their life. Phenotype is the product of the interactions of genotype with environment. Although most genes exist in duplicate some, called dominant genes, may actually influence the phenotype unless both members of the pair occur in a particular form. Many traits are polygenic, meaning they are transmitted through the combined action of several genes. Sex is determined by one particular pair of chromosomes, called the X and Y chromosomes, and a testis-determining factor (TDF) located on a small section of the Y chromosome. How do genetic abnormalities occur? Some genetic abnormalities, such as Down syndrome (trisomy 21), occur when an individual inherits too many or too few chromosomes. Others occur because particular genes are defective or abnormal even though the chromosomes are normal. Examples include Huntington’s disease, sickle-cell disease, and fragile X syndrome. How can experts help parents discover & respond to potential genetic abnormalities? Genetic counselling can provide parents with information about how genetics influences the development of children and about the risks of transmitting genetic abnormalities from one generation to the next. Personal circumstances & cultural differences in beliefs & expectations must be considered in helping couples reach informed decisions about pregnancy. How do heredity & environment jointly influence development? According to behavioural geneticists, every characteristic of an organism is the result of the unique interaction between the genetic inheritance of the organism & the sequence of environments through which it has passed during its development. The concept of range of reaction describes the strength of genetic influence under different environmental conditions. Studies of identical twins & of adopted children suggest that heredity & environment operate jointly to influence developmental change. Linkage & association studies use repeated DNA segments called polymorphisms as genetic markers to locate abnormal genes. Neither biogenic nor environmental determinism is likely to give us adequate understanding of human development, which is the product of genes, environment & individual choice. What important developmental changes occur during prenatal development? Prenatal development begins with conception, in which a zygote is created by the union of a sperm cell from the father & an egg cell, or ovum, from the mother. It consists of discrete periods, or stages. The germinal stage occurs during the first two weeks following conception; the zygote forms a blastocyst, which differentiates into three distinct layers & then implants itself on the uterine wall to form the embryo. During the embryonic stage – weeks three through eight – the placenta and umbilical cord form and the basic organs & biological systems begin to develop. During the foetal stage – week nine until the end of pregnancy – all physical features complete their development. The experience of pregnancy includes dramatic changes in a woman’s physical functioning & appearance, as well as significant psychological changes as prospective parents anticipate the birth of the baby. Infertility is the inability to conceive or carry a pregnancy to term after one year of unprotected intercourse. Family planning allows people to decide on the number & spacing of their children. Methods of contraception, including hormones, condoms, intrauterine devices, periodic abstinence & withdrawal, allow families to voluntarily prevent unintended pregnancy. Abortion is used to terminate pregnancy. What risks do a mother and baby normally face during pregnancy, and how can they be minimised? Although prenatal development is highly canalised, there are critical periods – particulary during the first trimester – when embryonic development is highly vulnerable or at risk for disruptions from teratogens, substances or other environmental influences, that can damage an embryo’s growth. Teratogenic effects depend on the timing, intensity & duration of exposure, the presence of other risks, & the biological vulnerability of baby & mother. Risk factors for prenatal development include both medicinal & non-medicinal drugs, such as heroin, cocaine, alcohol& tobacco; diseases such as syphilis, gonorrhoea & HIV/AIDS; physical & biological characteristics of the mother; & physical, biological & chemical environmental hazards. Domestic violence also increases risks to prenatal & postnatal development, as well as developmental risks to the mother. Adequate prenatal nutrition & health care for the mother & her developing baby are associated with successful pregnancy, a normal birth & healthy neonatal development. What happens during the birth process, what difficulties may occur, & how are they handled? Labour occurs in three distinct but overlapping stages. The first stage, during which uterine contractions increase in strength & regularity & the cervix dilates sufficiently to accommodate the child’s head, takes from 8 to 24 hours (for a first-time mother). The second stage, when the dilation of the cervix is complete & the birth itself takes place, lasts from 60 to 90 minutes. The third stage, during which the placenta is delivered, lasts only a few minutes. Non-hospital birth centres & home births are two alternatives to hospital-based births. Prepared childbirth is now widely used in both hospital & non-hospital birth settings to help women actively & comfortably meet the challenges of giving birth. Many babies are now delivered by midwives, who provide care to women during pregnancy, childbirth & the weeks following delivery. Doulas do not deliver babies, but help the mother during birth & with her newborn. Although pain-reducing medications can make the experience of childbirth more comfortable, they have been used more cautiously in recent years because of potentially adverse effects on the recovery of both infant & mother. Problems during labour and delivery can include insufficient uterine contractions, or faulty power; a faulty passageway caused by blockage of the birth canal; &a faulty passenger, which may occur if the baby’s physical position or large head prevents the completion of the journey through the birth canal. When vaginal delivery is not feasible, the physician may perform a caesarean section to surgically deliver the baby. Childbearing & delivery for parents with a disability pose specific challenges that can be overcome by clarifying misconceptions & providing appropriate information, equipment, & social & emotional support. Learning to care for a new baby is a welcome challenge for most new parents, but it may be especially difficult for adolescent parents, single parents & parents who are educationally & economically disadvantaged. READING 4 What do infants look like when they are first born? The average newborn has rather red-looking skin, is often covered with a waxy substance, and has a skull rather compressed on the top. The health of newborns born in hospitals is assessed soon after delivery with the Apgar Scale. At full term, the average newborn weighs about 3.4 kilograms. Regardless of cultural background, the newborn’s bodily proportions make the infant look appealing to adults and may foster the formation of attachments with adults. How do infants’ sleep and wakefulness patterns change as they get older? Infants sleep almost twice as much as adults do, but the amount of sleep they require gradually decreases as they get older. Interruptions in their sleep contribute to fatigue in their parents. How do infants’ senses operate at birth? At birth infants can see and hear, but with less accuracy or acuity than adults have. What motor skills evolve during infancy and what factors influence this development? Infants are born with a number of innate reflexes, but quickly develop certain motor skills during the first year, including reaching, grasping, and walking. Motor skills develop differently depending on cultural background, biological sex, and social gender roles. What do infants need nutritionally? Infants need more protein and calories per kilogram of body weight than older children do. Compared to formula and bottle feeding, breast feeding has a number of practical and psychological advantages. After meaning from breast or bottle, infants need a diet rich in protein and calories. Most Australasian families can provide these requirements, but many cannot. A common problem in Western diets is over-nutrition, which can create health risks in the long term. What factors can impair growth during infancy? One of the most important impairments to early growth is low birth weight, because the condition leads to difficulties with breathing, digestion and sleep, and impairs normal reflexes. The problems low-birth-weight infants experience can sometimes put stress on relationships with parents, but not always. For a variety of reasons, infants sometimes fail to thrive normally. Infant mortality has decreased in recent years, but in Australasia is it still a concern. How can infant cognition be studied? Infants’ arousal and attention can be studies by noting changes in their heart rates. Infants’ recognition and memory of familiar things can be studied by observing their habituation to stimuli, or tendency to attend to novel stimuli and ignore familiar ones. Do infants see and hear in the same way adults do? Perception refers to the immediate organisation of sensations. Cognition refers to the processes by which perceptions are organised – and it often happens deliberately. Studies of visual perception suggests infants under 6 months of age perceive a variety of patterns, including those usually found on a human face. Young infants, including newborns, show object constancy in visual perception, as well as visual anticipation of events. Infants also show sensitivity to depth, as indicated in the visual cliff experiments. Infants can localise sounds to some extent at birth, but do not do so accurately until about six months of age. Categorical thought can be demonstrated during infancy by using the reversal shift procedure. How do thinking and learning change during infancy? Piaget has proposed 6 stages of infant cognitive development in which schemes become less egocentric and increasingly symbolic and organised. Research on Piaget’s six stages generally confirms his original observations, but it also raises questions about the effects of motor skills and memory on infants’ cognitive performance. What roles do conditioning and imitation play in infants’ learning? Like older children and adults, infants can learn through behavioural conditioning and imitation. Behavioural learning tends to be ambiguous in infants less than three months old because it is difficult to distinguish true learning from general, automatic excitement. What phases do infants go through in acquiring language? Babbling begins around six months of ages and becomes increasingly complex, until it ‘disappears’ sometime before the infant’s second birthday. Infants show important individual differences in their selection of first words. Generally though, they use words for objects in their environment that are distinctive in some way. Adults influence language acquisition mainly by modelling simplified utterances, recasting their infants’ own utterances, and directing considerable language at the child as they grow. Professional caregivers influence language acquisition in similar ways to parents, but they must also recognise the potential effects of cultural gaps between them and the child. READING 5 What is care-giver infant synchrony? Sensitively tuned responses to an infant’s signals, which are appropriate, well timed and rhythmic. - Each waits for the other to finish before beginning to respond. What is reciprocal socialisation? Behaviours of infants invite continuing responses from parents and caregivers; in turn eliciting further responses from infants. What is the mutual regulation model? Gradually infants and parents learn to communicate their emotional states and to interact with and respond to each other effectively. - Infants learn new behaviours, skills and abilities through social interactions with other infants, which in turn stimulate infant cognitive development. What is reactivity? Refers to variations among individuals in emotional arousal, motor activity and attention. In contrast, self-regulation refers to strategies that modify and adjust reactivity. What is temperament? Refers to an individual’s consistent pattern or style of reacting to a broad range of environmental events and situations as well as their pattern of arousal and emotionality. What is attachment? - Attachment refers to the strong and enduring emotional bond that develops between an infant and a caregiver during the infant’s first year of life. - This relationship is characterised by reciprocal affection and a shared desire to maintain physical and emotional closeness. What is social referencing? The child’s sensitivity to the feelings of their parents and other adults, and their ability to use these emotional cues to guide their own emotional responses and actions in an uncertain situation. In what ways is a newborn infant capable of participating in the social world? How does caregiverinfant synchrony expand an infant’s social capabilities? Newborn infants have a natural tendency to actively participate in their social world. Caregiver-infant synchrony refers to the closely orchestrated social and emotional interactions between an infant and their caregiver and provides an important basis for the development of attachment relationships. The similarities in the type and quality of an infant’s interactions with their mother and father are greater than the differences. The effects of non-maternal care and maternal employment on infant and toddler development depend on the specific circumstances, but generally do not appear to be negative. When given the opportunity, infants engage in active social interactions with their siblings and peers and often prefer them to their parents as playmates. What emotional capabilities does an infant have? How do differences in infants’ temperaments affect their social development? Infants appear to be capable of a complex range of emotional responses and are quite sensitive to the feelings of their caregivers. They probably use cues similar to those that adults use, such as variations in voice quality, smell, touch, facial expression and body language. Even at birth, infants exhibit differences in temperament, patterns of physical and emotional responsiveness, and activity levels. These differences both influence and are influenced by the feelings and responses of their caregivers. What experiences enable infants to develop secure emotional attachments with their caregivers? What are the consequences of different attachment patterns? Attachment, the tendency of young infants and their caregivers to seek and maintain physical and emotional closeness with each other, is thought to provide an important basis for achieving secure and trusting relationships during early infancy. Attachment develops in a series of phases from indiscriminate sociability at birth to goal-coordinated partnerships at two years. The strange situation, in which the infant is confronted with the stress of being in an unfamiliar place, meeting a stranger, and being separated from their parent, has been used to study the development of attachment. Secure attachment is most likely to develop when the caregiver responds sensitively and appropriately to the infant and the infant can use the caregiver as a safe base for exploration. Insecurely attached infants tend to be less able than securely attached infants to get help from parents and teachers when they need it or to accept it when it is offered. Infants are equally capable of forming secure attachments to their mothers and to their fathers, and to other caregivers as well, even though the mother is the primary caregiver in the majority of families. The effects of both maternal employment and childcare on attachment depend largely on how the mother feels about herself and her role as a parent and how the situation helps or hinders her ability to care for and enjoy her baby. The quality of her experience and the quality and consistency of the childcare are also important. Attachment patterns can be long term, often affecting three generations of parents and their children. Why is autonomy so central to development during toddlerhood? What parenting qualities contribute to its successful development? Sources of the growing autonomy that characterises the second year of infancy include identification, operant conditioning, observational learning and social referencing. Toddlerhood also brings significant increases in self-knowledge and self-awareness. These changes are reflected in the toddler’s increasing awareness of adult standards, distress at behaviours modelled by unknown adults, and pride in their accomplishments. Toddlers are strongly motivated to achieve greater competence through successfully mastering and controlling the physical and social worlds around them. Competence is fostered by parents who encourage their infant’s curiosity by providing opportunities that are challenging, safe, and appropriate to the child’s capabilities. Increased selfesteem in the infant is the natural outcome of supportive parenting.