TUTORIAL SESSION #3 MOTIVATION AND EMOTION A. DISCUSSION: 1. Describe the homeostasis and drive theory of motivation. 2. Discuss Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. B. QUESTIONS: 1. Define motivation. Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. It’s essentially the driving force behind human actions. It’s what causes us to act. The term “motivation” is often used to describe whya person does something. There are two types of motivation - extrinsic and intrinsic. Extrinsic motivation is reward-driven behavior. It's when you're motivated to do something because of some outside cause such as avoiding a punishment or recieving a reward. For example, being paid to do a job. You may want to spend your day doing something other than work, but since you need a paycheck to pay the bills, you’ll be more motivated to go to work. Intrinsic motivation is when you do something for inherent enjoyment or personal satisfaction. It’s known as the best type of motivation. Intrinsic motivation is the inner drive that propels a person to pursue an activity, not for external rewards, but because the action itself is enjoyable. For example, taking a walk because it relaxes you and not because you just want to lose weight. Or, making a meal because you enjoy cooking, not because you’re hungry. Together, intrinsic and extrinsic motivations make up the underlying reasons, attitudes, and goals that give rise to human behavior. 2. Describe incentive and expectancy theory of motivation. 3. Describe what Maslow meant by “deficiency needs” and “growth needs” 4. Describe the mechanisms of hunger and satisfaction. What brain mechanisms are important in the regulation of hunger and eating? There are several mechanisms to keep the body in energy homeostasis by regulating food intake. Short-term signals that tell us when we’re hungry and when we’re full. AL Washburn believed that hunger is produced due to muscular contractions, known as hunger pangs, in an empty stomach. However other researchers challenged this theory and claimed that there are other signals that trigger hunger. Some signals, known as hunger and satiety signals, that increase and decrease hunger include: - Glucose, Neuropeptide Y and Ghrelin increase hunger Meanwhile CCK and Leptin decrease hunger There are also long-term signals that adjust appetite and metabolism by assessing how much body fat you have. - Fat cells actively regulate food intake by secreting leptin, which is a hormone that decreases appetite. This is a “background signal”. It doesn’t directly respond to our food intake and makes us feel full, like CCK. Instead it just regulates the potency of these signals. So, the more fat we gain, the more leptin is secreted into our bloodstream and then reaches our brain. Certain neurons detect this leptin and decrease appetite and increase energy expenditure. As we lose fat, less leptin is secreted and it takes a greater amount of satiety signals to make us feel full. In addition to these short and long-term signals, there are certain parts of the brain that regulate hunger and eating. The body's system for regulating food intake is coordinated by the hypothalamus, which is located under the midline of the brain, behind the eyes. It used to be thought that regions in the hypothalamus, LH, lateral hypothalamus and VMH, ventromedial hypothalamus were “hunger on” and “hunger off” centers. However, more recent studies are indicating that there are various neural circuits in the hypothalamus that regulate food intake. The PVN, paraventricular nucleus, is a cluster of neurons packed with receptor sites for various transmitters that stimulate or reduce appetite. Basically, PVN secretes various hormones that influence metabolic and digestive processes such as CCK and ghrelin. 5. What psychological, environmental, and cultural factors affect eating behavior? - eating disorders and COVID-19 - The COVID-19 pandemic has really taken a toll on people’s mental health - Generally just increased levels of stress, anxiety, depression but im gonna talk a bit about eating disorder - Seeing it first hand, i’ve definitely noticed more and more people developing these poor eating habits. Off the top of my head i feel like i could think of 7 different people, majority teen girls that are struggling with this - Mental illnesses are triggered by something - For many people covid 19 was a really big trigger for eating disorder - - - - - - I was reading an article on CTV news and it was talking about the spike in eating disorder cases across canada since the start fo covid-19 It was saying that SickKids Centre for Community Mental Health in toronto has had a 30% increase of inpatients and a 50-60% increase of outpatients since a year ago I was actually talking about this with my mom the other day and she was saying that this increase in eating disorder cases in coming from a lack of control It’s all psychological and people found themselves having no control over anything during this pandemic and so they resorted to something they could control - their appearance and their weight. I have a family friend who used to work out every day on a sports team but when everything shut down he kinda was lost. So he started working out alot at home. Like horus a day. And he wasn’t eating as many calories as he was burning and now he’ s anorexic. In addition, throughout this pandemic people have been experiencing increased isolation, school disruption, social media exposure and stress which are fuelling unhealthy eating and exercise habits. Yah so i just wanted to make that connection between eating disorders and the psychological factors that covid 19 have produced 6. Describe the factors that influence partner attractiveness for both males and females. 7. How do hormones effect sexual behavior? Sexual motivation is influenced by hormones such as testosterone, estrogen, progesterone, oxytocin, and vasopressin.These hormones essentially control the ability and motivation to engage in sexual behaviours. 8. Describe the phases of the “Sexual Response Cycle” proposed by Masters and Johnson. 9. Define sexual orientation. 10. What are some of the proposed explanations for the development of sexual orientation? 11. Define each of the following types of motivational conflict: approach-approach conflict, avoidance-avoidance conflict, and approach-avoidance conflict. 12. Discuss the brain structures and neurotransmitters that are involved in emotion. 13. Describe the James-Lange theory. 14. Describe the Cannon-Bard theory. 15. Describe Schachter’s Two-Factor theory of Emotion.