Kaplan Anatomy Coloring Book

Chapter One: Introduction ANATOMICAL POSITION AND TERMS OF DIRECTION When studying the human body it is important to place the body in anatomical position. Anatomical position is described as the body facing you, feet placed together and flat on the floor. The head is held erect, arms straight by the side with palms facing forward. All references to the body are made as if the body is in this position so when you describe something as being above something else it is always with respect to the body being in anatomical position. a. a. _ e. _ _ ) The relative position of the parts of the human body has specific terms. Superior means above while inferior means below. Medial refers to being close to the midline while lateral means to the side. Anterior or ventral is to the front while posterior or dorsal is to the back. Superficial is near the surface while deep means to the core of the body. When working with the limbs, proximal means closer to the trunk while distal is to the ends of the extremities. Write the directional terms in the spaces provided and color in the arrows in reference to these terms. Note that these terms are somewhat different for four legged animals. h.___ ). ( 1. _ ....lII('---:-----':----;-~. k . - - 1) I, \ V e _ I f. _ _ b. _ _ b. _ _ g._----- ~V? 1 h._ _ .. I . \! l«=~ Answer Key: a. Superior, b. Inferior, c. Lateral, d. Medial, e. Proximal, f. Distal, g. Anatomical position, h Posterior, i. Anterior, j. Dorsal, k. Ventral )~ I. Chapter One Introduction I ANATOMICAL PLANES OF THE BODY Many specimens in anatomy are sectioned so that the interior of the organ or region can be examined. It is important that the direction of the cut is known so that the proper orientation of the specimen is known. A heart looks very different if it is cut along its length as opposed to horizontally. A horizontal cut is known as a transverse section or a cross section. A cut that divides the body or an organ into anterior and posterior parts is a coronal section or frontal section. One that divides the structure into left and right parts is a sagittal section. If the body is divided directly down the middle the section is known as a midsagittal section. A midsagittal section is usually reserved for dividing the body into to equal left and right parts. If an organ (such as the eye) is sectioned into two equal parts such that there is a left and right half then this is known as a median section. Label the illustrations and color in the appropriate planes. c. a. Answer Key: a. Frontal (coronal) plane, b. Transverse (cross-section) plane, c. Median (midsagittal) plane b. _ _ c. mKAPeLAN(I· -Ical 3 Chapter One Introduction I me dlea - I KAPLAlf REGIONS OF THE ABDOMEN In anatomy the abdomen is divided into nine regions. Write the names of the regions in the spaces indicated. Color both the left and right hypochondriac regions in light blue. Hypochondriac means "below the cartilage." The common use of the word (someone who thinks they are sick all the time) reflects the Greek origin of the word as the ancient Greeks considered the region to be the center of sadness. Inferior to the hypochondriac regions are the lumbar or lateral abdominal regions. These are commonly known as the "love handles." Use yellow for these regions. Below the lumbar regions are the inguinal or iliac regions. You should color in these regions with the same shade of green. In the middle of the abdomen is the umbilical region. Color this region in red. Above this is the epigastric region (epi = above and gastric = stomach). Color this region in purple. Below the umbilical region is the hypogastric region (hypo = below). Color this region in a darker blue. In clinical settings a quadrant approach is used. Write the names of the regions (right upper quadrant, left upper quadrant, right lower quadrant, left lower quadrant) in the spaces provided. Color each quadrant a different color. Answer Key: a Right hypochondriac, b. Right lumbar (lateral abdominal), c. Umbilical, d. Right Inguinal or iliac, e. Epigastric, f. Left hypochondriac, g. Left lumbar (lateral abdominal), h. Left inguinal or iliac, i. Hypogastric, ) Left upper quadrant, k. Right upper quadrant, I. Left lower quadrant, m. Right lower quadrant a. b. c. d. g.----- 7 Chapter One I Introduction ORGAN SYSTEMS The human body is either studied by regions or by organs systems. This book uses the organ system approach in which individual organs (such as bones) are grouped into the larger organ system (for example, the skeletal system). Typically eleven organ systems are described. The skeletal system consists of all of the bones of the body. Examples are the femur and the humerus. The nervous system consists of the nerves, spinal cord, and brain while the lymphatic system consists of lymph glands, conducting tubes called lymphatics, and organs such as the spleen. The term immune system is more of a functional classification I IAPLAN· · me dlea 9 and will not be treated as a separate system here. The muscular system consists of individual skeletal muscles as organs such as the pectoralis major and deltoid. Label the organ systems underneath each illustration and label the selected organs by using the terms available. When you finish, select different colors for each organ system and color them in. Organ System Organ Organ Skeletal system Nervous system Lymphatic system Muscular system Femur Nerves Lymph glands Pectoralis major Humerus Spinal cord Spleen Deltoid d.- Organ Brain _ a.---- b.--- c. _ g.-------- 1.----- 1. _ Answer Key: J. - - - - - - - - - ffi .. _ a. Humerus, b. Femur, c. Skeletal, d. Brain, e. Spinal cord, f. Nerves, g. Nervous, h. Spleen, i. Lymph nodes, j. Lymphatic, k. Deltoid, I Pectoralis major, m. Muscular Chapter One Introduction HIERARCHY OF THE BODY The human body can be studied at different levels. Organs such as the stomach can be grouped into organ systems (digestive system) or can be studied on a smaller scale like the cellular level. The ranking of these levels is called a hierarchy. The smallest organizational unit is the atom. Individual atoms are grouped into larger structures called molecules. I KAPLA~. meulCa I These in turn make up organelles, which are part of a larger, more complicated systems called cells. Cells are the structural and functional units of life. Cells are clustered into tissues. Organs are discreet units made up of two or more tissues and organs are grouped into organ systems that compose the organism. Label the levels of the hierarchy and color each item a different color. ~a. b. _ o g.----- c. - - - - - d. _ Answer Key: a. Organism (human), b. Organ system (respiratory system) c. Organ (lung), d. Tissue (epithelium), e. Organelle (cilia), f. Molecule, g.Atom, h. cells 5 Chapter One Introduction ORGAN SYSTEMS (CONTINUED) The skin and other structures are in the integumentary system and the digestive system involves the breakdown and absorption of food with organs such as the esophagus and stomach. The endocrine system is made of the glands that secrete hormones such as the thyroid gland and the adrenal glands. The respiratory system involves the transfer of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air and the blood. The respiratory system consists of organs such as the trachea and lungs. I mKAPeLANd' -Ical Label the organ systems underneath each illustration and label the selected organs by using the terms available. When you finish, select different colors for each organ system and color them in. Organ System Organ Organ Integumentary system Digestive system Endocrine system Respiratory system Skin Esophagus Thyroid gland Trachea Stomach Adrenal glands Lungs a.-------- J "', ~~. ,-,.,"1 b.- ~, \~\ I( \ _ e. _ Q ---)fjp )._---~~ /, \ ~'.~~ I\ , I 'I' \ \ h.------ -. / / \ / k. _ Answer Key: a. Skin, b. Integumentary, c. Esophagus, d. Stomach, e. Digestive, f. Thyroid gland, g. Adrenal gland, h. Endocrine, i, Trachea, j. Lung, k. Respiratory 11 Chapter One Introduction ORGAN SYSTEMS (COI\ITINUED) The heart and associated blood vessels compose the cardiovascular system which circulates blood throughout the body. The urinary system filters, stores, and conducts some wastes from the body. The bladder and urethra are part of the urinary system. The testes and ovaries are part of the reproductive system and this system perpetuates the species. The differentiation of male and female systems makes this organ system unique among the other systems. These eleven organs systems can be remembered by the memory clue LN Cries Drum. Each letter represents Organ System Organ Organ Cardiovascular system Urinary system Reproductive system Heart Bladder Testes Blood vessels Urethra Ovaries b.---- J C \:: c. _ h. Answer Key: a. Heart, b. Blood vessels, c. Cardiovascular, d. Bladder, e. Urethra, f. Urinary, g. Ovary, h. Testis, I. Reproductive 1. d' -.eal lA PeL m AN 13 the first letter of a name of an organ system. Label the organ systems underneath each illustration and label the selected organs by using the terms available. When you finish, select different colors for each organ system and color them in. -_ a. I _ _ -J Chapter One Introduction I KAPLA~. meulCa I BODY REGIONS (AI\ITERIOR) There are specific anatomical terms for regions of the body. These areas or regions frequently have Greek or Latin names because early western studies in anatomy occurred in Greece and Rome. During the Renaissance, European scholars studied anatomy and applied the ancient names to the structures. Label the various regions of the body and fill in their names. You can use a standard anatomy text or follow the key at the bottom of the page. A list of terms and their common names follows for the anterior side of the body. Color in the regions of the body. cranial (head) facial (face) cervical (neck) deltoid (shoulder) pectoral (chest) sternal (center of chest) brachial (arm) antebrachial (forearm) manual (hand) digital (fingers) abdominal (belly) inguinal (groin) coxal (hip) femoral (thigh) genicular (knee) crural (leg) pedal (foot) digital (toes) qr-~) a. - - - - - - - - - \ ~··:~lf.e-;;) )1) .:§ ~b_' ..~ .....::::.>::-..__ : ~ r" _ :::::;::::.~ d. - - - - - - "',""--:' '\ . . .(.... '] ( -.'>..! . . ~ \. y~ e. 1\L\..····· f.---- : ./.....·V...............) . .. g. _ _ ~- . 0 (..f\/·t .......\. ~ ... " ~ ......./ ~ -/~~ 1 . - \ \J 1. _ m. _ n. O. _ ......J ... Tp Answer Key: a. Cranial (head), b. Facial (face), c. Cervical (neck), d. Deltoid (shoulder), e. Sternal (center of chest), f Pedoral (chest), g. Brachial (arm), h. Abdominal (belly), i. Antebrachial (forearm), j. Coxal (hip), k. Manual (hand), I. Digital (fingers), m. Inguinal, n. Femoral (thigh), o. Genicular (knee), p. Crural (leg), q. Pedal (foot), r. Digital (toes) }~ ~;{---j r'' L q \ ..~~ r. - - - - - - - 15 Chapter One Introduction I lAP LANd'• me lea I BODY REGIONS (POSTERIOR) For the posterior view of the body fill in the terms and color the regions of the body. The anatomical names are given first with the common names in parentheses. cephalic (head) nuchal (neck) scapular (shoulder blade) vertebral (backbone) lumbar (love handles) brachial (arm) olecranon (elbow) antebrachial (forearm) gluteal (buttocks) femoral (thigh) popliteal (back of knee) sural (calf) calcaneal (heel) ----i--- J. - - - - - - - - - - .' /--11} \ ...... Answer Key: a.Cephalic (head), b. Nuchal (neck), c. Scapular (shoulder blade), d. Brachial (arm), e. Vertebral (backbone), f. Olecranon (elbow), g. Lumbar(love handles), h. Antebrachial (forearm), i. Gluteal (buttocks), j. Femoral (thigh), k. Popliteal (back of knee), I. Sural (calf), m. Calcaneal (heel) ~ m. - - - - - - - - - - 17 Chapter One Introduction BODY CAVITIES The organs of the body are frequently found in body cavities. The body is divided into two main cavities, the dorsal body cavity and the ventral body cavity. The dorsal body cavity consists of the cranial cavity, which houses the brain and the spinal canal, which surrounds the spinal cord. The ventral body cavity contains the upper thoracic cavity, which is subdivided into the pleural cavities, housing the lungs, and the I KAPLAIf I me d lea 19 mediastinum. The mediastinum contains the heart in the pericardial cavity, the major vessels near the heart, nerves, and the esophagus. Below the thoracic cavity is the abdominopelvic cavity, which contains the upper abdominal cavity, housing the digestive organs, and the inferior pelvic cavity, which holds the uterus and rectum in females or just the rectum in males. Label the specific and major cavities of the body and color them with different colors. b.------c. - - - - - - - - - Answer Key: a. Dorsal body cavity, b. Cranial cavity, c. Spinalcanal, d. Ventral body cavity, e. Thoracic cavity, f. Mediastinum, g Pericardial cavity, h. Pleural cavity, I. Abdominopelvic cavity, j. Abdominal cavity, k. Pelvic cavity Chapter Two: Cells, Tissues, and Integument OVERVIEW OF CELL AND CELL MEMBRANE Cells consist of an enclosing plasma membrane, an inner cytoplasm with numerous organelles, and other cellular structures. The fluid portion of the cell is called the cytosol. Color the cytosol in last after you color the rest of the cellular structures. One of the major structures in the cell is the nucleus. It is the genetic center of the cell and consists of tluid karyoplasm, chromatin (containing DNA), and the nucleolus. Color these features and label them on the illustration. The cytoskeleton consists of microtubules, intermediate filaments and microfilaments. It is involved in maintaining cell shape, fixing organelles, and directing some cellular activity. 21 Golgi apparatus assembles complex biomolecules and transports them out of the cell. Proteins are made in the cell by ribosomes. If the ribosomes are found by themselves in the cytoplasm, they are called free ribosomes. If they are attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum, they are called bound ribosomes. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum manufactures lipids and helps in breaking down toxic materials in the cell. Other structures in the cell are vesicles (sacs that hold liquids). Phagocytic vesicles ingest material into the cell. Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes while peroxisomes degrade hydrogen peroxide in the cell. After you label and color the organelles make sure to go back and shade in the cytosol. Centrioles are microtubules grouped together and are involved in cell division. Label the organelles of the cell and use a different color for each one. The mitochondria are the energy-producing structures of the cell while the a. p. o. ll. m. _ 1. _ The plasma membrane is composed of a phospholipid bilayer. Color the phosphate molecules on the outside and inside of the membrane one color and the lipid layer another color. Cholesterol molecules occur in the membrane and, depending on their concentration, can make the membrane stiff or more fluid. Proteins that are found on the outside of the membrane are called peripheral proteins while proteins that pass through the membrane are called integral proteins. Frequently these make up gates or channels that allow material to pass through the membrane. Attached to proteins on the cell membrane are carbohydrate chains. These provide cellular identity. Label and color the cell membrane structures. r. q.------ v. _ Answer Key: a. Golgi apparatus, b. Lysosome, c. Peroxisome, d. Phagocytic vesicle, e. Nucleus, f. Nucleolus, g. Chromatin, h. Karyoplasm, '1. Cytoskeleton, J. Centrioles, k. Plasma membrane, I. Cytoplasm, m. Rough endoplasmic reticulum, n. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum, o. Mitochondrion, p. Free ribosomes, q. Phospholipid bilayer, r.Integral protem, s.Carbohydrate chain, t. Peripheral protein, u. Phosphate molecule, v. lipid layer, w. Cholesterol molecule Chapter Two Cells, Tissues, and Integument SIMPLE EPITHELIA There are four types of tissues in humans and these make up all of the organs and binding material in the body. Epithelial tissue makes up linings of the body. In many cases, where there is exposure (outside, such as the skin, or inside, such as in blood vessels), epithelium is the tissue found. It is named according to its layers (typically simple or stratified) and the shape of cells (such as cuboidal). Simple squamous epithelium is a single layer of flattened cells. Simple cuboidal epithelium is also a single layer of cells but the cells are in the shape of cubes. Simple columnar epithelium is a single layer of long columnar cells. Label and color these epithelial types and pay attention to the basement membrane, the noncellular layer that attaches the epithelium to lower layers. It should be colored red. Color the nuclei in purple, the cytoplasm blue, and label the cells. Top view Side view a. b. Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium is in a single layer of cells hut it looks stratified on first appearance. Not all of the cells reach the surface of the tissue. All of the cells reach the basement membrane. Label and color the nuclei, basement membrane, cell membrane and the cilia in this tissue. c. d. - - - - - - - - - Answer Key: a. Simple squamous epithelium, b. Simple cuboidal epithelium, c. Simple columnar g. epithelium, d.Cilia, e. Cell membrane, t. Nuclei, g. Basement membrane, h. Pseudostratlfled ciliated columnar epithelium h. I UPLANd·· me lea I 23 Chapter Two Cells, Tissues, and Integument STRATIFIED EPITHELIA There are two common epithelial tissues that are many-layered. Stratified squamous epithelium is many layers of flattened cells. Label and color the basement membrane red, color the cytoplasm blue, and the nuclei purple. There are two major types of stratified squamous epithelium. Keratinized epithelium is found on the skin and is toughened by the protein keratin. Non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium is found in the oral cavity and vagina and is a mucous membrane. Another main type of layered epithelial tissue is transitional epithelium. This is tissue that lines part of the urinary tract including the bladder. When the bladder is empty, the cells bunch up on one another and the tissue is thick. When the bladder is full, the cells stretch out into a few layers. Label the cell types for each picture and color the structures in the same way as in previous illustrations. a. _ Stretched Relaxed b. - - - - - - - - - - - Answer Key: a. Stratified squamous epithelium, b. Transitional epithelium I KAPLAdlf. me lea I 25 Chapter Two Cells, Tissues, and Integument I KAPLA!._ meulCa I GLANDS There are several types of glands in the human body. Some of these glands secrete their products into tubes or ducts. These are known as exocrine glands. Other glands secrete their products into the spaces between cells where they are picked up by the blood or lymph system. These are the endocrine glands. Endocrine glands secrete hormones that have an impact on target tissues of the body. Glands can be unicellular or multicellular. Glands that consist of just one cell are called goblet cells. They secrete mucus, which is a lubricant. There are many types of multicellular glands. They are classified by how they secrete their products. Some glands secrete products from vesicles pinched off from the cell. These are called merocine glands. In these glands no cellular material is lost in the secretion of material. An example of a merocrine gland is a sweat gland. Some cells squeeze parts of the cell off to secrete cellular products. These are known as apocrine glands. The lactiferous glands that produce milk are apocrine glands. Some secretions occur by the entire cell rupturing. These are called holocrine glands. Oil glands of the skin are holocrine glands. Label the glands and color them in on the figure. b. a. c. e.----- Answer Key: a. Exocrine gland, b Endocrine gland, c. Goblet cell, d. Merocrineglands, e. Vesicles, f. Apocrine glands, g. Holocrine glands d. _ f. g._------ 27 Chapter Two Cells, Tissues, and Integument I lAP LANd' • me lea COI\II\IECTIVE TISSUE Connective tissue is a varied group of associated tissues, all of which are derived from an embryonic tissue known as mesenchyme. Connective tissue not only has cells, as do all of the other tissues, but it also has fibers and a large amount of background substance called matrix. There are many specific tissues that belong to connective tissue. Loose connective tissue is found wrapping around organs or under the epidermis and it is composed of collagenous, elastic, and reticular fibers, a liquid matrix and numerous cells, many of which have an immune function. Dense regular connective tissue has a few cells called fibrocytes and a small amount of matrix with most of the tissue composed of a regular arrangement of collagenous fibers. This specific tissue makes up tendons and ligaments. If the fibers are not in an orderly arrangement, then the tissue is called dense irregular connective tissue. This tissue is found in places like the white of the eye. a. b. c. d. e. c. f. c. ~ ~ ~C~~ • .. • \ '------J •.'~ ~~ »: g. I •• ,,~,-, ~/ ~~ ~ ~ ••• ~ Answer Key: a. Matrix, b. I"ibrocyte, c. Collagenous fiber, d. Elastic fiber, e. Loose connective tissue, f. Dense regular connective tissue, g. Dense 'Irregular connectivetissue < ••.••• ) ••••• •••• ••••••••••. I 29 I Chapter Two Cells, Tissues, and Integument CONNECTIVE TISSUE (CONTINUED) Elastic connective tissue contains elastic fibers and is found in areas that recoil when stretched such as in the walls of arteries. Reticular connective tissue consists of reticular fibers that form an internal support in soft organs such as the liver and spleen. Adipose tissue consists of specialized fat-storing cells called adipocytes. Label and color the components of these connective tissues. c. d. e. Answer Key: a. Collagenous fibers, b. Elastic fibers, c. Elastic connective tissue, d. Reticular fibers, e. Reticular connective tissue, f. Adipose tissue f. _ _ IAPLAlf I me dlea 31 Chapter Two Cells, Tissues, and Integument CARTILAGE There are three types of cartilage in connective tissue. The most common kind of cartilage is hyaline cartilage. It contains a semisolid matrix, collagenous fibers, and chondrocytes (cartilage cells). The end of the nose is pliable due to hyaline cartilage. Fibrocartilage is like hyaline cartilage, having the same components, but there are more collagenous fibers in fibrocartilage. It is found in areas where there is more stress, such as the joint between the bones of the thigh and leg. Elastic cartilage has a matrix, chondrocvtes, and elastic fibers. These fibers make the cartilage more bendable than hyaline cartilage. Label and color the cells and fibers of cartilage and use a light color to shade the matrix such as a pale pink or blue. a. - - - - - - - - - - c. e. Answer Key: a. Matrix, b. Chondrocytes, c. Hyalinecartilage, d. Collagenous fibers, e Fibrocartilage, f. Elastic fibers, g. ElastiC cartilage f.------- g. I KAPLAll"d- me lea I :n Chapter Two Cells, Tissues, and Integument BONE AND BLOOD Bone is a connective tissue. The cells are the osteocytes and the fibers are collagenous fibers enclosed in a hard matrix of bone salts. You will not see the fibers in the illustration because they are covered by the dense matrix. Label and color the osteocytes and matrix of bone. Blood is another kind of connective tissue. The matrix in blood is the plasma and the cells are erythrocytes (red blood cells) and leukocytes (white blood cells). I KAPLAIf I me d lea a. b. I, ~. Platelets are small flat disks in the blood that aid in clotting. c. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - d. _ o • e. _ 0 ~O 0 oGoDo !I00 ~oO \V. 0 oCb' cP \\)OOC6 o (JOc; OO\JOC]J f. h. Answer Key: a. MatriX, b. Osteocyte. c. Bone, d. Erythrocyte, e. Platelet, f. Leukocytes, g. Plasma, h. Blood g. - - - - - - - - - 35 Chapter Two Cells, Tissues, and Integument MUSCLE AND NERVOUS TISSUE Muscular tissue is composed of specialized cells involved in contraction. Skeletal muscle makes up body muscles and represents around 40 percent of the body mass. Skeletal muscle is striated and the fusion of individual cells produces longer, mature cells that are multinucleate. These nuclei are found on the edges of the cells. Skeletal muscle can be consciously controlled and is called voluntary muscle. Label and color the striations of the skeletal muscle cells, the nuclei, and individual cells. Cardiac muscle is also striated but the striations are not as obvious as in skeletal muscle. This muscle is found in the heart and is involuntary. It does not involve conscious control. Cardiac muscle typically has only one centrally located nucleus per cell, and the cells themselves are branched. They attach to other cells by intercalated discs, which allow communication between cells for the conduction of impulses during the cardiac cycle. Label and color these features on the illustration. a. b. I rlea me C KAPLA I Smooth muscle is not striated and it is involuntary. The cells are slender and have one nucleus located in the center of the cell. It is widely distributed in the body, making up, among other things, part of the digestive system, reproductive system, and integumentary system. Smooth muscle is found in glands and other areas not under conscious control. Label and color the nucleus and cell of smooth muscle. Nervous tissue consists of the neuron and associated glial cells. Neurons have numerous branched extensions called dendrites, a central nerve cell body (soma) that houses the nucleus, and a long extension called an axon. The glial cells, also known as neuroglia, have many functions. Some of these are supportive of the neuron and some may involve processing of neural information. Label and color the parts of the neuron and the glial cells. _ b. ~'\\~~~}~~/ ;:CF-;C C~ :=':':C~':~ _ e. ... -- - - - -- c. d. _ f. b. c. _ 1. g. 37 h. _ Answer Key: a. Striations, b. Nuclei, c. Cell, d. Skeletal muscle, e. Intercalated disc, f. Cardiacmuscle, g. Smooth muscle, h. Nervous tissue, i. Nerve cell body, j. Glial cells (Neuroglia), k. Dendrites, I. Nucleus, m. Axon Chapter Two Cells, Tissues, and Integument I KAPLAlfdme leaI 39 INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM The most superficial layer of the skin is the epidermis. Color the five layers of the epidermis. The deepest layer is the stratum basale and there are specific cells called melanocytes that secrete the brown pigment melanin. Color the majority of the stratum basale pink but color the melanocytes brown. Color the stratum spinosum a light blue. The stratum granulosum has purple granules in it so color that layer using purple dots. The stratum lucidum (found only in thick skin) is a thin, light colored layer so yellow or white are good colors for this tissue. Color the superficial stratum corneum orange. The overview of the skin contains many layers. Color the epidermis a red-orange. The dermis consists of two layers, an upper papillary layer, which should be colored in a light pink, and a deeper reticular layer, which should be colored a darker pink. There are sweat glands that are found in the dermis that can be colored purple. You should color the hypodermis (not a part of the integument) yellow because of the amount of fat found there. Two types of touch receptors can easily be seen in microscopic sections. These are the Meissner corpuscles and the Pacinian corpuscles. f.------ 1. _ Fl , _ 1----- 1. Answer Key: a. Stratum corneum, b. Stratum IUCIdum, c. Stratum granulosum, d. Stratum spinosum, e. Stratum basale, f. Melanocyte, g. Epidermis, h. Papillary layer, I. Reticular layer, J. Dermis, k. Hypodermis, L Sweat gland, m. Pacinian corpuscle, n. Meissnercorpuscle m.-------- g.---- -).--- Chapter Two Cells, Tissues, and Integument HAIR AND NAILS Hair consists of several parts. The hair originates from the dermal papilla and the deepest part of the hair is known as the hair bulb. The hair is pushed superficially and forms the hair root (the part of the hair enclosed in the skin). Once the hair erupts from the skin it is known as the hair shaft. Color the three sections of hair different shades of blue. The hair is enclosed by the hair follicle, which should be colored purple. I KAPLA~. meulca I Associated with the hair are the arrector pili muscle, which is made of smooth muscle and is colored pink, and an oil-secreting gland known as the sebaceous gland, which should be colored yellow. Fingernails and toenails are considered accessory structures of the integument. Color the diagram labeling the nail plate, the free edge, the nail fold, the lunula, eponychium (cuticle), nail root, hyponychium and the nail bed. a. 1. k. J. 1. - - - - - - - - - h. 41 _ m. n. o. Answer Key: a. Bulb, b. Follicle, c. Root, d. Shaft,e. Sebaceous gland, f. Arrector pili. g. Pacinian corpuscle, h. Nail plate, i. Nail fold, J. Lunula, k. Eponychium, I. Nail root, m. Free edge, n. Hyponychium, o. Nail matrix (Nail bed) Chapter Three: Skeletal System FRONTAL ASPECT OF THE SKULL The skull is a complex structure. There are 8 cranial bones and 14 facial bones in the skull. From the anterior view most of the facial bones can be seen and some of the cranial bones are visible too. The bone that makes up the forehead and extends beyond the eyebrows is the frontal bone. This bone forms the upper rim of the orbit, which is a socket that encloses the eye. In the back of the orbit is the sphenoid bone and the lateral walls of the orbit are composed of the zygomatic bones. The bridge of the nose consists of the paired nasal bones and just lateral to a. 43 them are the two maxillae. These bones hold the upper teeth. The lower teeth are held by the mandible. Inside the nasal cavity two projections can be seen. These are the inferior nasal conchae. The wall that divides the nasal cavity is the nasal septum and it consists of two bones, the ethmoid bone and the vomer. Along the side of the skull are the temporal bones, located posterior to the zygomatic bones. Label the major bones of the skull and color them in. As you color in the skull try to use the same color for the same bone on different pages. This will help you associate the same bone with various views from which it can be seen. d.~------ _ e. - - - - - - - - _ f. g.------- h. Answer Key: a. Orbit, b. Frontal bone, c. Temporal bone, d. Sphenoid bone, e. Nasal bone, f. Zygomatic bone, g. Nasal septum, h. Maxilla, i. Mandible Chapter Three Skeletal System I Many bones seen from the anterior view can also be seen from the lateral view. The frontal bone is joined to the parietal bones by the coronal suture. The parietal bones span much of the cranium and articulate with the occipital bone at the lambdoid suture. There is a posterior extension of the occipital bone known as the external occipital protuberance. The exterior aspect of the temporal bone is seen from the lateral view and many of the significant features such as the mastoid process, external acoustic meatus, and styloid process are visible. On the side is the elongated zygomatic process. The temporal bone articulates with other cranial bones by the squamous suture. The bone anterior to the temporal bone is the sphenoid bone. It is a bone that is found in the middle of the skull. The nasal bone is visible from the lateral view and its relationship with the maxilla can be seen here. Behind the maxilla is the r. 45 lacrimal bone which houses the nasolacrimal canal, a duct that drains tears from the eye into the nose. The mandible articulates with the rest of the skull at the mandibular condyle. A depression in front of the condyle is the mandibular notch and the anterior section of bone in front of the notch is the coronoid process. Label the major features of the skull seen in lateral view and color each bone a different color. LATERAL VIEW OF THE SKULL a. UPLANd'· me leaI Details of the mandible can be seen in the isolated bone. In addition to the features of the mandible listed above, find the mandibular foramen and the mental foramen of the mandible. These are holes for the passage of nerves and blood vessels. The main portion of the mandible is the body and the upright part is the ramus. The angle is the posterior junction of these two parts. The teeth are located in alveoli and the small segments of bone between the teeth are the alveolar processes. Label the features of the mandible. _ _ q._----- p._----- 0. Tl, ffi. 1. _ e. _ f. _ _ _ _ k. _ s. z. 1. Answer Key: a. Coronal suture, b. Parietal bones, c. Zygomatic process, d. Temporal bone, e. Squamous suture, f. Lambdoid suture, g. External occipital protuberance, h. Occipital bone, i. Mastoid process, j. External acoustic meatus, k. Styloid process, I. Mandible, ill. Maxilla, n. Zygomatic bone, o. Nasal bone, p. Lacrimal bone, q. Sphenoid bone, r. Frontal bone, s. Coronoid process, t. Mandibular foramen, u. Mandibular notch, v. Mandibular condyle, w. Ramus, x. Angle, y. Body, z. Mental foramen Chapter Three Skeletal System SKULL-TOP AI\ID BOnOM VIEWS I KAPLA~. meulca I 47 Anterior The superior aspect of the skull consists of few bones and few sutures. The frontal bone is the most anterior bone with the parietal bones directly posterior to it. The coronal suture separates the two and the sagittal suture separates the parietal bones. The lambdoid suture separates the parietal bone from the occipital bone. Label the bones and sutures and color the bones in the illustrations. The inferior aspect of the skull is more complex than the superior view. In the inferior view the mandible has been removed so some of the underlying structures can be seen. The large opening in the occipital bone is the foramen magnum. The two bumps lateral to the foramen magnum are the occipital condyles and the raised bump at the posterior part of the skull is the external occipital protuberance. The more anterior and lateral bone to the occipital bone is the temporal bone. The jugular foramen is located between the occipital and temporal bone. Another opening nearby is the carotid canal. Lateral to this is the styloid process, an attachment point for muscles. Lateral to this is a depression called the mandibular fossa. it is here that the mandible articulates with the temporal bone. The sphenoid bone spans the skull and the major features seen from the inferior view are the greater wing, and the lateral and medial pterygoid plates. The hard palate is made of the palatine process of the maxilla and the palatine bones. The bone that opens into the nasal cavity is the vomer. Label and color these features of the skull. Anterior g. h. _ 1. Sphenoid bone: J. k. 1. q._-----Answer Key: a. Frontal bone, b. Coronal suture, c. Parietal bones, d. Sagittal suture,e. Lambdoid suture, f. Occipital bone, g. Palatine process of the maxilla, h. Palatine bone, i. Vomer, j. Greaterwing, k. Lateral pterygoid plate, I. Medial pterygoidplate, m. Mandibularfossa, n. Styloidprocess, o. Carotid canal, p. Jugularforamen, q. Occipital condyles, r. Foramen magnum, s. External occipital protuberance r. Posterior ChapterThree Skeletal System MIDSAGITIAL SECTION OF THE SKULL Several features of the skull can be seen when it is sectioned in the midsagittal plane. Locate the major bones of the skull and the features seen in this section. The nasal septum consists of two bony structures, the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone and the vomer. The crista galli extends superiorly from the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone. The junction of the maxilla and the palatine bone that make up the hard palate can be seen from this view as well. The frontal sinus and the sphenoid sinus are two cavities seen here. Label the bones and the major features of the midsagittal section of the skull using the terms provided. Color the bones different colors and shade the sinuses in a darker shade of the color used for the specific bones that hold the sinuses. a. Frontal bone Temporal bone Maxilla Styloid process Nasal bone Vomer Sphenoid sinus Parietal bone Sphenoid bone Mandible Sella turcica Palatine bone Crista galli I UPLANd'· me lea I 49 Occipital bone Ethmoid bone Internal acoustic meatus Cribriform plate of the ethmoid Perpendicular plate of the ethmoid Frontal sinus _ b. c. m. d. e. f. n. g. h. 1. J. k. r. _ Answer Key: a. Frontal bone, b. Frontal sinus, c. Nasal bone, d. Ethmoid bone, e. Crista galli, f. Cribriform plate of the ethmoid, g. Perpendicularplate of the ethmoid, h. Vomer, i. Maxilla, j. Palatine bone, k. Mandible, I. Parietal bone, m. Temporal bone, n. Sella turcica, o. Occipital bone, p. Internal acoustic meatus, q. Sphenoid bone, r. Sphenoid sinus Chapter Three Skeletal System SPHENOID, TEMPORAL, Af\ID ETHMOID BONES A few bones of the skull are frequently studied as separate bones. The sphenoid bone has a superficial resemblance to a bat or butterfly. There are the lesser wings, the greater wings, and the pterygoid plates, all of which resemble wings. The dorsum sellae is the posterior part of the sella turcica (a depression that holds the pituitary gland). Locate the foramen rotundum and the foramen ovale on the sphenoid bone. These holes enclose parts of the trigeminal nerve. c. The temporal bone has a flat squamous portion and a denser petrous portion. The section of the temporal bone that connects to the zygomatic bone is the zygomatic process. There are two significant canals or meatuses for hearing. These are the external acoustic meatus and the internal acoustic meatus. The mastoid process is a large bump that can be palpated directly posterior to the ear. The styloid process anchors a number of small muscles. _ d. _ e. The ethmoid bone is located just posterior to the nose and is best seen isolated from the rest of the skull bones. The cribriform plate that has small holes called olfactory foramina in it. Locate the crista galli and the perpendicular plate. The ethmoid has four curved structures lateral to the perpendicular plate. These are the two superior nasal conchae and the two middle nasal conchae. The ethmoid sinuses are numerous small holes in the bone. Locate the structures of these skull bones. Label the illustration and color in the features of the bones. Answer Key: (Sphenoid features), a. Sella turcica b. Lesserwing,c. Foramen rotundum, d. Foramen ovaIe,e. Dorsum sellae, f. Greater wing (Temporal features), g. Squamous portion, h. Zygomatic process, i. External acoustic meatus, J. Styloid process, k. Mastoid process (Ethmoidfeatures), I. Crista galli, m. Middle nasal concha, n. Perpendicularplate, o. Superior nasal concha 0. _ _ I lAP LANd'• me lea I 51 Chapter Three Skeletal System I mIAPeLA'!a-.cal U VERTEBRAL COLUMN We are unique as animals because of our upright posture. The vertical position of the spine is reflected in the increase in size of the vertebra from superior to inferior. The vertebral column is divided into five major regions. There are 7 cervical vertebrae that occur in the neck while the 12 thoracic vertebrae have ribs attached to them. The 5 lumbar vertebrae are found in the lower back and the sacrum consists of 5 fused sacral vertebrae. The coccyx is the terminal portion of the vertebral column consisting of 4 coccygeal vertebrae. The vertebral column in the adult has curves. The uppermost is the cervical curvature and the lower ones are the thoracic, lumbar, and pelvic curvatures. Label the illustration with the regions and the curvatures and color in the regions with different colors. Color in the curved arrows for the curvatures. , \../""/ I~ a. _ b. _ c. _ d. _ \ I vi Answer Key: a. Cervical vertebrae (cervical curvature), b. Thoracic vertebrae (thoraciccurvature), c. Lumbarvertebrae (lumbar curvature), d. Sacrum (pelvic curvature), e. Coccyx , 53 Chapter Three I KAPLA~. Skeletal System meulca I ATLAS The atlas is the first cervical vertebra. It is unique among the vertebrae because it has no body. Label the vertebral foramen, superior articular facet, the transverse foramen, and the lateral masses. e. _ AXIS The axis is the second cervical vertebra and it has a body with a projection that arises from the body known as the odontoid process or dens. Label the axis including the superior articular facets, the transverse foramen, the spinous process, and the vertebral foramen. Color these features in. ATLAS AND AXIS Here are the atlas and axis together. Color the two bones separate colors. HYOID The hyoid bone is a floating bone, which means that it has no hard attachments to other bones. The main part of the hyoid is the body and the two horns that arise from the hyoid are the greater cornua and the lesser cornua. Label these parts of the bone and color them in separate colors. Answer Key: a. Vertebral foramen, b. Lateral masses, c. Transverse foramen, d. Superiorarticular facet, e. Spinous process, f. Body, g. Odontoid process (dens), h. Axis, i.Atlas, j. Lesser cornua, k. Greater cornua, I. Body 55 h Chapter Tree Skeletal System THORACIC, CERVICAL, R VERTEBRAE AND LUMBA mmon to vertebrae Features co the spinal cord . gwhere . The operun the vertebra IS passes through t bral foramen. known as the ver ertebra is the Th e body of the ve f the vertebra . part 0 ss is the par t weight-bearing . proce . Iy. This process al an d the spinous d ostenor that exten ~ p from the vertebr is an extension from the body arch that curves tebral foramen. enclosing the ver sed of the two This arch is compo laminae. The edicles and. the tworocess and the facet (the flat superior artIcu~~cess) are the parts surface on ~he the vertebra above. that join with . ular process and The infe~ior ar1~~ar facet are t?e the infenor art b that join with parts 0 f the verte ra the vertebra below. ~uperior art~cular . 1Vertebra Cervica d. __ e. 1. j. a. Thoracic Vertebra . al vertebrae . al cervlc . TYPIc. nd lateral view superior a distinct from . I rtebrae are . Cervica ve b having two II other vertebra~ y These house f mma. , . a transverse ora her characteristic blo od vessels.Anot . I rte brae rae i s that several of the cervica ve spinous process of them have a b ifid cic vertebrae Typical thora lateral view superior and b e typically have . erte ra The thoracic v ocesses than l onger spinous pr d many of them riorandirection. Th e cervical ver t.ebrae int in an infe . vertebrae, pOl in thoracic . body is larger I bones with n d they are the on y ttachment a that are a costal facets h ads of ribs. The Points for the e ses can be seen transverse proces sverse cos tal along WIith the tran facets. TYPlc~1 lumbar verteb!ae d lateral view superior an brae have larger The lumbar v:r~~ey support ~ore bodies becaus . s process IS The spinou I' weight. re horizonta III . shorter and mo han in thoracic I mbar vertebrae t costal facets u There are no bel vertebrae. foramina. La and no transverse brae illustrated . the par ts of the verte and color them Ill. Lum ba r Vertebra b. . , process, . a Bifid spinous c Vertebral Answer Key.. ' s process" , I b. Spinou d Lamina, , e' Pedic e, foramen, ' , lar process, f. Superior articu ess h. Body, g 'ssJ', ' Transverse, proc lar proce , Transverse i Inferior artrcu , r costal facet, ' k Superio foramen" f et I. Inferior costal ac / d. _ c. e. __ ", ., . (t " ~!I\C' '" ~ '~~T*P ~.:~ :tI:~ 1. b. u KAPeLA~·lcal 1m 57 ChapterThree Skeletal System · I I med· lea IAPLAN SACRUM AND COCCYX Sacrum and coccyx, anterior view The terminal portion of the vertebral column consists of two structures that are fused bones. The sacrum is 5 fused vertebrae and the coccyx is 3-5 fused vertebrae. The top rim of the sacrum is the sacral promontory and the wing-like expansion where the ilium attaches is the ala. The area where the vertebrae join are the transverse lines. The holes running down each side are the anterior sacral foramina. At the top of the sacrum are the superior articular processes and they attach to the lumbar vertebra. Label and color the parts of the sacrum and the coccyx. c. _ d. e. -f. _ _ _ Sacrum and coccyx, posterior view From the posterior view the median sacral crest is the fused remains of the spinous processes of the vertebrae. The posterior sacral foramina are on each side of the crest and the lateral sacral crests are lateral to the foramina. The superior articular processes can be seen from this view and also the auricular surface which forms part of the sacroiliac joint. Label the features of the sacrum and the coccyx and color them in. Answer Key: a. Superior articular process, b. Ala, c. Sacral promontory, d. Transverse lines, e. Anterior sacral foramina, f. Coccyx, g. AUricular surface, h. Lateral sacral crest, i. Median sacral crest, j. Posterior sacral foramina 1. _ 59 ChapterThree Skeletal System STERNUM / RIBS / HYOID The sternum is commonly known as the breastbone and is divided into three areas, the upper manubrium with the suprasternal notch and the clavicular notches, the body with the costal notches (where the ribs attach), and the xiphoid process. Between the manubrium and the body is the sternal angle. Label these features on the illustration and color the three major areas of the sternum different colors. If you select a rib as a representative bone for all of the ribs, you will find the terminal portion of the rib is expanded in a head. The constricted region below that is the neck. The tubercle of the rib is a bump that attaches to the transverse process of the vertebra. The bend in the rib is known as the angle and the depressed area of the rib where nerves and blood vessels are found is the costal groove. Color in the individual parts of a rib after you label the figure and color the rib as it joins with a vertebra. a. - - - - - - - - b. _ c. _ d. _ e.------- f. _ g._----- 1. _ 1. Answer Key: a. Suprasternal notch, b. Clavicular notch, c. Manubrium, d. Sternal angle, e. Costal notches, f. Body, g.Xiphoid process, h. Head, i. Tubercle, j. Neck, k. Angle of rib, I. Costa I groove _ .. 1. _ I I KAPLAlf medlea 61 ChapterThree I Skeletal System UPLANd'· me lea I APPEf\I DICULAR SKELETON-PECTORAL GIRDLE AND UPPER EXTREMITY The pectoral girdle is made of the clavicles and the scapulae. The upper extremity consists of the humerus of the arm, the radius and ulna of the forearm, and the carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges of the hand. Locate these major regions of the upper extremity and label them on the diagram. Color these areas in different colors on the illustration. a. _ II ,(, , / / I 1 , II c.---------- d. _ f. Answer Key: a. Clavicle, b. Humerus, c. Scapula, d. Radius, e. Ulna, f. Carpals, g. Metacarpals, h. Phalanges 63 Chapter Three Skeletal System I SCAPULA The pectoral girdle consists of the scapulae and the clavicles. Each scapula is a triangular bone and the three edges are known as the superior border, the lateral border, and the medial border. The scapular spine is on the posterior surface and it expands into a terminal process known as the acromion process. Above the spine is the supraspinous fossa. Below the spine is the infraspinous fossa and on the anterior side of the scapula is the subscapular fossa and the coracoid process. The inferior angle of the scapula is at the junction of the medial and lateral borders. Inferior to the acromion process is the glenoid fossa. This is a depression where the head of the humerus articulates with the scapula. Label the various features of the scapula and color in the regions of the bone with different colors. Locate as many of the features from the various angles presented. c. _ d. _ e. - - - - - - - --4~it7;:~ f. _ g._----h. d. _ _ a. _ c.---------- d. _ f. Answer Key: a. Acromion process, b. Superior border, c. Coracoid process, d. Glenoid fossa, e. Subscapular fossa, f. Lateral border, g. Medial border, h. Inferior angle, i, Supraspinous fossa, j. Scapular spine, k. Infraspinous fossa _ h. _ UPLANd'· me lea I 65 Chapter Three Skeletal System CLAVICLE The clavicle is a thin bone that stabilizes the shoulder joint in a lateral position. It has a blunt end that articulates with the sternum (the sternal end) and a flattened end that joins with the acromion process of the ................ I lAPLA~. meulCa ' . .; . ". '" ". Superior view Sternum Inferior view c. Answer Key: a, Sternal end, b. Acromial end, c. Conoid tubercle 67 scapula. This is called the acromial end. A small bump on the inferior part of the clavicle has a ligament that attaches to the coracoid process of the scapula. This bump is called the conoid tubercle. Label the clavicle and color the ends and the conoid tubercle. ". ............... I _ Chapter Three Skeletal System I KAPLA~. meulCa I HUMERUS The humerus has a proximal head that fits into the glenoid fossa of the scapula. Just at the edge of the head is a rim known as the anatomical neck. Below this neck are the greater and lesser tubercle and the depression between the two is the intertubercular groove. Below these is the surgical neck of the humerus. The deltoid muscle attaches to the humerus at the deltoid tuberosity and the two expanded wing-like processes at the distal end of the humerus are the supracondylar ridges. Inferior to these are the medial and lateral epicondyles and at the articulating ends of the humerus are the lateral capitulum and the medial trochlea. The depression on the anterior surface of the humerus into which the ulna fits is called the coronoid fossa and the posterior depression where the elbow locks into the humerus is called the olecranon fossa. Label the figure and color in the specific parts of the illustration. ~f. __ £,. \~ r L g._------- h. _ 1. _ J.------ m. ~----:i_=~~~L----- Anterior View Answer Key: a. Greatertubercle, b. Head, c. Anatomical neck,d. Lesser tubercle, e. Intertuberculargroove, f. Surgical neck, g. Deltoid tuberosity, h. Supracondylar ridges, i. Lateral epicondyle, j. Coronoid fossa, k. Olecranon fossa, I. Medial epicondyle, m. Capitulum, n. Trochlea _ Posterior View 69 Chapter Three Skeletal System I me UPLANd'· lea I 71 FOREARM BONES The radius has a circular head, a radial tuberosity on the shaft (where the biceps brachii muscle attaches), and a distal styloid process. At the distal end of the radius is a depression where the ulna joins with the radius. This is known as the ulnar notch of the radius. The ulna has a proximal olecranon process, a coronoid process, and the trochlear notch between the two. Just distal to the coronoid process of the ulna is the tuberosity ofthe ulna, a projection where muscles attach. The head of the ulna is distal and it also has a styloid process. At the proximal portion of the ulna is a depression where the head of the radius articulates with the ulna. This depression is known as the radial notch of the ulna. When the two bones are joined you can see where each fits into the other. On the edge of each bone is the interosseus margin. This is a ridge where the interosseus membrane connects the bones. g.----- h. _ 1.------ Answer Key: a. Olecranon process, b. Trochlear notch, c. Coronoid process, d. Radial notch,e. Tuberosity of the ulna, f. Head, g. Radial tuberosity, h. Interosseus margin,i. Ulnar notch, j. Styloid process J.------ I ChapterThree Skeletal System ImAPelA~·ICal U HAND BONES The hand consists of 27 bones divided into three groups: the carpals, the metacarpals, and the phalanges. The thumb is known as the pollex and is listed as the first digit of the hand. The index finger is the second digit and the fingers are listed sequentially with the little finger being the fifth digit. The bones of the fingers are known as phalanges and they are named according to what digit they belong and as being proximal, middle or distal. Therefore the bone of tip of the little finger is the distal phalanx of the fifth digit while the bone in the place where you would normally wear a wedding ring is the proximal phalanx of the fourth digit. Each phalanx has a proximal base, a shaft, and a distal head. The metacarpals are the bones of the palm of the hand. Each metacarpal also has a proximal base, a shaft, and a distal head. There are five metacarpals and they are named for the phalanges that extend from them. The first metacarpal articulates with the thumb. The carpals are the bones of the wrist. There are eight carpal bones in two rows. The bone under the thumb is the trapezium. The one medial to it is the trapezoid. The capitate is found under the third metacarpal and the hamate finishes that row. Proximal to the trapezium is the scaphoid, which joins with the radius. The next bone in line is the lunate, followed by the triquetrum, and finally the little pisiform bone. If you memorize the bones in this sequence you can use a mnemonic device to remember them. This mnemonic is The Tom Cat Has Shaken Loose To Prowl. The first letter of the mnemonic represents the first letter of the carpal bone. Label the illustration and color all of the phalanges one color. Color the metacarpals another color and color the carpal bones individual colors. As you color the various illustrations of the hand use the same color scheme for the bones. Right Hand, Posterior View a. _ 1. _ J.----k. _ 1. a. _ e. m. h. _ Right Hand, Anterior View _ _ _ f. e. A(~~} Answer Key: a. Phalanges, b. Head, c. Shaft, d. Base, e. Hamate, f. Capitate, g. Triquetrum, h. Lunate, i. Metacarpal, j. Trapezoid, k. Trapezium, I. Scaphoid, m. Pisiform j. ~ -rS? m. _ _ ~YI\0f:(~ .' "\J5 .......;:}(JJ!>A ~~.~~r . . . ·l~' •• 1. g._---- h. _ _ Right Hand, Anterior View, Carpals n Chapter Three Skeletal System KAPLAlf a._-:-- HIP The hip bones are known as the os coxae. Each os coxa is a result of the fusion of three bones, the ilium, the ischium, and the pubis. Label and color in these three fused bones using a different color for each area. The two os coxae, when joined together by the pubic symphysis, form the pelvis and it can be divided into an upper false pelvis and a lower true pelvis separated by the pelvic brim. The anterior superior iliac spine and the anterior inferior iliac spine can be seen from the front. The top ridge of the pelvis is the iliac crest. The large, inferior hole is the obturator foramen and the depression superior to it is the acetabulum. Note the junction of the sacrum and the ilium that forms the sacroiliac joint. Label the features of the anterior view and color them in. _ J.----- p~",- m. _ 1.- _ 75 _ c. 1. Answer Key: a. Iliac crest, b. Sacroiliac joint, c. Greatersciaticnotch, d. Anterior superior iliac spine, e. Anterior inferior iliacspine, f. Acetabulum, g. Obturator foramen, h. Pubicsymphysis, i. False pelvis, j. True pelvis, k. Ilium, I. Ischium, m. Pubis I med-leaI _ Chapter Three Skeletal System I KAPLAlf I medlea HIP (CONTINUED) Lateral View When seen from a lateral view, several features are apparent in the os coxa. Locate the posterior superior iliac spine and the posterior inferior iliac spine along with the greater sciatic notch, the spine of the ischium, and the lesser sciatic notch. The ischial tuberosity is at the posterior, inferior edge of the ischium. Just anterior to the tuberosity is a strip of bone called the ischial ramus that attaches to the inferior pubic ramus. The body of the pubis is the most anterior part of the pubis and the superior pubic ramus is the portion that forms part of the acetabulum. Label and color these features on the illustration. 1. _ J.------k. _ 1. ffi. _ _ ll.------ 0. _ MALE AND FEMALE PELVIS Differences can be seen between the male and female pelvis. The subpubic angle in males is less than 90 degrees and the female angle is greater than 90 degrees. The ilium in males is more vertical than in a pelvis of a woman who has had children. A further distinction is seen in the side view of a pelvis in which the sciatic notch in the female pelvis has a much wider angle than in males. Color in the upper portion of the ilium. q.------Answer Key: a. Iliac crest, b. Posterior superior iliac spine, c. Posterior inferior iliac spine, d. Greatersciaticnotch, e. Spine of the ischium,f. Lesser sciatic notch, g. Ischial tuberosity, h. Ischial ramus, i. Anterior superior iliac spine, j. Anterior inferior iliac spine, k. Superior pubic ramus, I. Inferior pubic ramus, m. Obturatorforamen, n. Acetabulum, o. Iliacblade, p. Subpubicangle, q. Male (lessthan ninety degrees), r. Female (more than ninety degrees) r.---- _ 77 Chapter Three Skeletal System I ImAPeLA~·lcal U LOWER EXTREMITYFEMUR/PATELLA The lower extremity consists of the femur of the thigh, the tibia and fibula of the leg, and the tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges of the foot. Locate these major regions of the lower extremity and label them on the diagram. Color these areas in different colors on the illustration. The femur seen from the anterior view shows a proximal head and a constricted neck. Two large processes are distal to the neck. These are the greater trochanter and the lesser trochanter. There is a raised section of bone between them called the intertrochanteric line. The main part of the bone is the shaft and the lateral epicondyle and medial epicondyle are the distal expansions of the bone. The posterior view of the femur has additional features such as the intertrochanteric ridge, the linea aspera, and the lateral condyle and the medial condyle. The femur is bowed and this can be seen from a lateral view as well as the placement of the patella. The base of the patella is superior and the apex is inferior. Label the features of the femur and patella and color in the various parts. h. _ n. _ p._---- Answer Key: a. Femur, b. Patella, e. Tibia, d. Fibula, e. Tarsals, f. Metatarsals, g. Phalanges, h. Greater trochanter, i. Head, j. Neck, k. Intertrochanteric line, \. Intertrochantericridge, m. Lesser trochanter, n. Linea aspera , o. Lateral epicondyle, p. Lateral condyle, q. Medial epicondyle, r. Medial condyle, s. Base of patella, t. Apex of patella Anterior r. _ s. _ Posterior 79 KAPLAN d'. I me lea Chapter Three I Skeletal System TIBIA / FIBULA The tibia supports the weight of the body and is the bone that articulates with the femur. The fibula is more slender and is a bone to which muscles attach. The top of the tibia is expanded into a triangular shape with the medial tibial condyle and lateral tibial condyle articulating with the condyles of the femur. The quadriceps femoris muscles attach to the tibial tuberosity on the anterior surface of the tibia just below the condyles. The anterior tibial crest is a large ridge that runs the length of the bone. At the terminal portion of the tibia is the medial malleolus. This process, along with the lateral malleolus of the fibula, join with the talus of the foot. The head of the fibula is proximal. It is a triangular region with a pointed apex. Label the tibia and fibula illustrations and color in the various regions of the bones. d. e. _ _ I I I I I I Answer Key: a. Lateral tibial condyle, b. Medial tibial condyle, c. Tibial tuberosity, d. Apex, e. Head of fibula, f. Anteriortibial crest, g. Shaft of tibia, h. Shaftof fibula, i. Medial malleolus, j. Lateral malleolus I I Anterior Posterior 81 ChapterThree I Skeletal System UPLANd·· me lea LEFT FOOT a. Color in the seven tarsal bones using different colors for each bone. The calcaneus is the heel bone and takes the major weight of the body during walking. The talus connects the foot to the tibia and fibula forming the ankle joint. The cuneiforms are so called because they are wedgeshaped bones and they form a natural arch of bone in the foot. 1. 1. _ _ 3. _ _ b. 1. Phalanges 2. Metatarsals 3. Tarsals a. Distal phalanges, b. Middle phalanges, c. Proximal phalanges, d. Head,e. Shaft, f. Base, g. First (medial) cuneiform, h. Second (intermediate) cuneiform, i. Third (lateral) cuneiform, j. Cuboid, k. Navicular, I. Talus, m. Calcaneus _ 2. a. Answer Key: b.-----c.--------~.lL-~'o-d. Note that each of the metatarsals and each of the phalanges has a distal head, a shaft, and a proximal base. Color all of the five metatarsals the same color. The first metatarsal is under the big toe and the fifth is under the smallest toe. Color all of the fourteen phalanges another color. All of the proximal phalanges are given the same letter in the illustration as are the middle and distal phalanges. Write proximal, middle, or distal in the appropriate space next to the toes. The big toe (hallux) has two phalanges while the other toes have three. _ c. _ _ _ h . - - - - - -__ Tarsals g._------ J.---- m. _ I 83 Chapter Four: Articulations CLASSIFICATIONS OF ARTICULATIOI\IS a. _ Articulations are the joints that occur between bones.' They can be classified either according to movement or by structure. Joints can be immovable (synarthroses), semimovable (amphiarthroses), or freely movable (diarthroses). The composition of joints can be fibrous, cartilaginous, or synovial. FIBROUS JOINTS Fibrous joints are held together by collagenous fibers, the same fibers that make up tendons and ligaments. These joints do not have a joint cavity. Sutures are immovable fibrous joints of the skull. Color in the suture illustrated on the page. A gomphosis is a fibrous joint in which a round peg is held into a socket. Gomphoses are represented by the teeth held into the maxilla or the mandible. Another fibrous joint is the syndesmosis. This joint is found between the distal radius and ulna (or tibia and fibula) and is semimovable. Color in the various fibrous joints. g._----- h. 1. _ J. Answer Key: a. Gomphosis (peg suture), b. Tooth, c. Alveolar socket, d. Gingiva, e. Alveolar ridge, f. Periodontal ligaments,g. Suture, h. Sagittal suture, i. Syndesmosis, J. Tibia, k. Fibula, 1. Interosseous membrane, m. Posterior tibiofibular ligament, n. Transverse tibiofibular ligament _ 85 Chapter Four Articulations I mKAPeLANd· -Ical 87 CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS Cartilaginous joints are bones held together by cartilage and do not have a joint cavity. If the joint is held together by hyaline cartilage it is known as a synchondrosis. If the cartilage is short then the joint is immovable. An example of this kind of joint is an epiphyseal plate. If the cartilage is a little longer then the joint is a semimovable joint. This is represented by the sternal-rib junction. A cartilaginous joint that is composed of fibrocartilage is known as a symphysis (symphyses plural). These are semimovable joints. Examples of symphyses are the pubic symphysis and intervertebral discs. Color the cartilaginous joints. Use different colors for the hyaline cartilage from the fibrocartilage. d. _ b.---c. a. f. _ _ _ g._---- 1. Answer Key: a. Synchondrosis, b. Sternum, c. Costal cartilage, d. Ribs, e. Femur, f. Epiphyseal plate, g Symphysis, h. lntervertebrai disc, i. Lumbar vertebra, j. Sacrum _ J.----- Chapter Four Articulations SYNOVIAL JOINTS, BURSA, AND TENDON SHEATH Synovial joints are complex joints that are all freely movable. There are variations with the joints but all synovial joints con~ist of two bones enclosed by a joint capsule, articular cartilages, synovial membranes that secrete synovial fluid in the synovial cavity. Some synovial joints have fibrocartilage pads in the cavity called menisci (meniscus singular). Color the synovial joint and pay attention to the general structure of the joint. Color each part of the joint °a different color. a. b. I mKAPeLA~·lcal 89 U _ _ c.-------- d. e. _ g.------- MODIFIED SYNOVIAL STRUCTURES-BURSAE AI\ID TEI\IDON SHEATHS There are structures in the body that consist of svnovial membranes and fibrous capsules, These are not synovial joints but are associated with joints. A bursa is one such structure. It is a fluid-filled sac with an internal synovial membrane that cushions tendons as they pass over bones. The bursa occurs between the tendon and the bone. Another structure is a tendon sheath. It also is composed of a synovial membrane and fibrous sheath and it encloses tendons. The sheaths can provide lubrication to the tendon so it does not become irritated as it passes over bones or next to other tendons. Color in the layers of the bursa and the tendon sheaths. Answer Key: ao Bone, b. Joint capsule, c. Synovial cavity (synovial fluid), d. Meruscus, e. Articular cartilage, f. Synovial membrane, g. Tendon sheath, h. Achilles tendon, i. Bursa, j. Calcaneus h.- _ Chapter Four Articulations I KmAP~~·ICal ItnI SPECIFIC SYNOVIAL JOINTS Synovial joints are classified by what kind of motion they have. Gliding joints move in one plane like two sheets of glass sliding across one another. Hinge joints have angular movement like a door hinge. Rotating (pivot) joints move like a wheel of a car around an axle. Condyloid (ellipsoidal) joints move like hinges in two directions. In these joints there is a convex surface and a concave surface. Saddle joints have two concave surfaces. They allow for greater movement than condyloid joints. Ball and socket joints allow for the greatest range of movement and are found in the shoulder and hip. Color the illustrations of these joints. a. _ c.----------d. - _ g._-------------- ~h_ 1. Answer Key: a. Superiorarticular process, b. Vertebrae, c. Inferior articular process, d. Gliding (plane), e. Humerus, f Ulna, g. Hinge, h. Ulna, i. Radius, j, Rotating _ J. 91 11 _ .r' ,/ Chapter .Four ArticulatIons NOVIAl SPECIFIC ~NTINUED) JOINTS (C a. c. d. e. g. K y"a Femur, b . Ball-and- Answer e d Carpals, k t Ra d"·· IUS, . . soc e ,c. . f Trapezium, e. Condyloid,. \ h Saddle g. First metacarpa, . h. ! medicaI KAPLAN". 93 Chapter Four Articulations I KA PeLA N d' m .·cal SPECIFIC JOINTS a. TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT Som.ejoints of the body warrant special attention. The !e~P?romandibular joint or jaw joint IS both a gliding joint and a hinge joint. The condyle of the mandible articulates with the mandibular !ossa of the temporal bone. An articular disc is found in the joint that decreases the stress on the joint. Ligaments (dense connective tissue that joins bone to bone) connect the mandible to the temporal bone. _ b. _ Jaws closed e. _ //; . ~V . ,r ~--='--d. h.----- Jaws opened widely Actions: 1.------- Answer Key: a.Temporal bone b. Coronoid process, c. Condyl~ld process (CUI), d. Angle of mandible e. Mandibl,. f. Articular disc, g Capsule, h. Hinge, I. Hinge and glide c) / / -------- 95 Chapter Four Articulations I IlAPLAlf I me dlea 97 HUMEROSCAPULAR AND ACETABULOFEMORAL JOINTS The humeroscapular joint or shoulder joint is a ball-and-socket joint that connects the humerus to the glenoid fossa of the scapula. The joint is deepened by the glenoid labrum which is a fibrocartilage ring. There are numerous ligaments that connect the scapula to the humerus. a. _ c. _ d. Another ball and socket joint is the acetabulofemoral joint. It also has an acetabular labrum and numerous ligaments that joint the femur to the hip. e. _ g._----- h. _ 1. Answer Key: a. Articular cartilage, b. Glenoid labrum, c. Capsule, d. Glenoid fossa, e. Humerus, f. Scapula, g. Shoulder joint, h. Femur, i. Acetabular labrum, j.Hip joint _ Chapter Four Articulations I IAPLAN· · I medlea 99 TIBIOFEMORAL JOINT The tibiofemoral joint is special in humans because it is the largest joint in the body and because it is particularly vulnerable to injury. The joint is stabilized by the patellar tendon, the medial and lateral collateral ligaments, the anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments and the medial and lateral menisci. Label the structures in the anterior view,with the patella in place and with it reflected, and color them in. b. _ g. h. Answer Key: a. Femur, b. Patella, c. Fibular collateral ligament, d. Patellar tendon, e. Tibial collateral ligament, f. Fibula, g. Tibia, h. Posterior cruciate ligament, i. Anterior cruciate ligament, j. Lateral meniscus, k. Medial meniscus _ k. -T+H-T++------fc7*--+--_+_ b. _ Chapter Four Articulations I me d'.lea I 101 KAPLAN where the joint is extended beyond anatomic position. Looking up at the ceiling is hyperextension of the head. MOVEMENT AT JOINTS There is a broad range of motion that occurs at joints. These motions should be referenced with the body in anatomical position. Flexion of a joint is a decrease in the joint angle from the body in anatomic position. When the elbow is bent the forearm is flexed. Most flexion takes place in a forward direction. The exception to this is the leg where flexion of the leg results in the bending of the knee. Extension of the joint is when the joint is returned to anatomic position. Hyperextension is a condition Abduction occurs when the extremities or head are moved in the coronal plane, laterally from the body. Adduction is the return of the limbs to the body. Rotation is the movernen t of part of the body in a circular pattern. Lateral rotation is the movement of the body in a lateral direction and medial rotation is in the opposite direction. I~(I~ a. - - - - - - - - - )dJ ~'-~'\~'-~ \ ~--------------\ _ d. ~"'---~ 1\ b.---- c. e. _ ( -) x; I I sv J i ( f. ~ g. J f// Answer Key: a. Hyperextension of the head, b. Flexion of the forearm, f. Medial rotation of the thigh, g. Lateral rotation of the thigh c. Extension of the forearm, d. Abduction of the arm, e. Adduction of the arm, l Chapter Five: Nervous System 103 OVERVIEW OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM The body must react to the external environment and the internal environment and communicate information between regions of the body. This job is primarily the task of the nervous system. Proper response to the external environment is critical for thermal regulation, response to threats, taking advantage of opportunities such as food availability, and a host of other stimuli. Response to the internal environment is important for sensing muscle tension, digestive processes, maintenance of blood pressure, and other functions. Communication is important for coordination of activities such as walking, digestion, and maintenance of blood pressure. The nervous system also integrates information from the environment, relates past information to the present and interprets new experiences. The brain and the spinal cord make up the central nervous system. The nerves of the body make up the peripheral nervous system. The peripheral nervous system is divided into the somatic nervous system which consists of spinal nerves and peripheral nerves that innervate the outer regions of the body. It also consists of the autonomic nervous system. Label the parts of the nervous system and color them in. d. Answer Key: a. Central nervous system, b. Brain, c. Spinal cord, d. Peripheral nervous system, e. Spinal nerves, f. Peripheral nerve \ \ _ Chapter Five Nervous System NEURON The nerve cell or neuron is the functional cell in the nervous system. Most electrical conduction in the body is due to the transmission of impulses by the neuron. The neuron consists of branched structures called dendrites. The main portion of the nerve cell is called the soma or nerve cell body, and the elongated part of the neuron is the axon. Two neurons are connected by gaps called synapses. The nerve cell body is the metabolic center of the cell consisting of a nucleus, an endoplasmic reticulum called the Nissl bodies, and a region where the axon attaches called the axon hillock. Color in the parts of the neuron and label the parts. b. e. f. Answer Key: a. Dendrites, b. Nerve cell body (soma), c. Nissl bodies, d. Axon hillock,e. Axon, f. Synapses _ I d'.·cal KmAPeLAN 105 Chapter Five Nervous System I UPLA~. meulCa I 107 NEUROGLIA Neuroglia or glial cells have many specialized functions in the nervous system. The neurolemmocyte or Schwann cell is found in the peripheral nervous system. These cells make up the myelin sheath that wraps around axons. The other neuroglia are located in the central nervous system. Astrocytes are glial cells that, along with the brain capillaries, are found in the blood-brain barrier. They also have a role in transferring nutrients from the capillaries to the deeper regions of the brain. Another glial cell that functions as a barrier is the ependymal cell. These cells are located between the CNS and cavities filled with cerebrospinal fluid. Microglia are also found in the CNS and their function is one of protection. Microglia respond to invasions of the nervous system and they destroy microbes. Capillary Neurons Oligodendrocytes are neuroglia that produce myelination in the CNS. Myelinated nerve fibers comprise white matter. Myelinated fibers conduct impulses faster than unmyelinated fibers. White matter is mostly associated with transmission of neural impulses from one area to another. Color each glial cell a different color and write the name of each cell in the space provided. b.------- g.-d. Answer Key: a. Astrocyte, b. Ependymal cell, c. Microglial cell, d. Oligodendrocyte, e. Neurolemmocytes (Schwann cells), f. Myelin sheath, g. Axon _ Chapter Five Nervous System a. NEURON SHAPES/SYNAPSE I me UPLANd'· lea I _ Neurons come in a few basic shapes. The most common neuron in the eNS is the multipolar neuron. It consists of many dendrites and a single axon. Bipolar neurons are not very common. They are found in the eye, in the nose, and in the ear and consist of a singular dendrite and an axon. Pseudo unipolar neurons make up the sensory nerves of the body. They consist of a cluster of dendrites at one end, a long axon leading to the nerve cell body, and another axon leaving the nerve cell body at the same area. Neurons connect to each other by synapses. The neuron first carrying the information is called the presynaptic neuron. This neuron has synaptic vesicles that release neurotransmitters. The synaptic cleft is the space between the neurons and the postsynaptic neuron is the receiving neuron. Label the various neurons and their parts as well as the synapse between the neurons. d. Answer Key: a. Dendrites, b. Nerve cell body, c. Axon, d. Multipolar neuron, e. Bipolar neuron, f. Pseudounipolar neuron, g. Presynaptic neuron, h. Postsynaptic neuron, i. Synaptic vesicles, j. Synaptic cleft, k. Neurotransmitter k. _ _ e. _ f._ _~ _ .1.-------- 109 Chapter Five Nervous System e. NEURAL DEVELOPMENT The nervous system develops early as a neural groove. This groove folds in on itself to become a neural tube as early as four weeks after conception. At about six weeks of age the beginning cerebral hemispheres can be seen as lateral enclosures from the neural tube along with the developing eye just posterior to the hemispheres. This embryonic brain is divided into three regions, the prosencephalon or forebrain, the mesencephalon or midbrain, and the rhombencephalon or hindbrain. Label the parts of the embryonic brain and the adult derivatives of that brain and color in the regions. I ~'ta, \.·.tr~\... I. \\ ( b.. rt[~ c. \ .•.•. .;/ / I f.,,· -.,' \ r---. I'. d. Frontal section 4-week embryo Lateral view 4-week embryo UPLANd'· me lea I _ Q[f£ _ ~)\ , ~ \.... ;1 \ \r.j /i 1,·.;1 1[1 Frontal section 6-week embryo Lateral view 6-week embryo g._---- 1. Answer Key: a. Prosencephalon, b. Mesencephalon, c. Rhombencephalon, d. Spinal cord, e. Cerebral hemisphere, f. Developing eye, g. Forebrain, h. Midbrain, i. Hindbrain _ 111 Chapter Five Nervous System LATERAL ASPECT OF THE BRAIN The most obvious features of a lateral view of the brain are the lobes of the cerebrum and the cerebellum. The most anterior lobe is the frontal lobe, which is responsible for intellect and abstract reasoning, among other things. The division between the frontal lobe and the parietal lobe is the central sulcus. Just anterior to the central sulcus is the precentral gyrus, an area that sends motor impulses to muscles of the body. Just posterior to the central sulcus is the postcentral gyrus. The postcentral e. c.-- _ b. a. _ _ _ Answer Key: a. Temporal lobe, b. Lateral fissure, c. Frontal lobe, d. Precentral gyrus, e. Central sulcus, f. Postcentral gyrus, g. Parietal lobe, h. Occipital lobe, I. Cerebellum KAPLA~. me"dCa I 113 gyrus receives sensory information from the body. On the lateral aspect of the brain is the lateral fissure and inferior to this is the temporal lobe of the brain. Hearing, taste, smell, and the formation of memories all have centers here. The most posterior part of the cerebrum is the occipital lobe, which has visual interpretation areas. Label the regions seen in a lateral view of the brain and the spinal cord. Color the precentral and postcentral gyri and then color the lobes of the brain. Shade in the cerebellum as well. _ d. I Chapter Five Nervous System SUPERIOR ASPECT OF THE BRAIN From the superior aspect, the two cerebral hemispheres are divided by the longitudinal fissure. The frontal lobes are separated from the parietal lobe by the central sulcus. The precentral gyrus (primary motor cortex) and the postcentral gyrus (primary somatosensory a. I KAPLA~. meulCa I cortex) are on either side of the central sulcus. The gyri are the raised areas of the cerebral cortex and the sulci are the shallow depressions of the cerebral cortex. Together, these compose the convolutions of the brain. Label and color the regions of the superior aspect of the brain. _ b. c. - - - - - - - - - - d. ----'----'- e. _ f. 115 _ g.-----1. - - - - -_ _ h. Answer Key: a. Frontal lobe, b. Longitudinal fissure, c. Precentral gyrus, d. Central sulcus, e. Postcentral gyrus, f. Parietal lobe, g. Gyri, h. Occipital lobe, i. Sulci Chapter Five Nervous System INFERIOR ASPECT OF THE BRAIN When seen from an inferior view, many different features can be seen on the brain. The frontallobe is anterior and the temporallobe and cerebellum are visible as well. The cerebellum has small folds called folia. The medulla oblongata is attached to the spinal cord and the pons is anterior to the medulla oblongata. Anterior to the pons are the mammillary bodies which are responsible for the olfactory (smell) reflex. The pituitary gland is next to the mammillary bodies. Anterior to I KAPLANd'. I me lea 117 the pituitary is the optic chiasma, an x-shaped structure that has the optic nerves anteriorly and the optic tracts posteriorly. The olfactory tracts are seen in this view of the brain as two parallel structures on either side of the longitudinal fissure. The blood vessels of the brain are not visible in this illustration because they obstruct some of the neural structures. They are covered in the cardiovascular section. The cranial nerves will be covered in subsequent pages. Label the structures seen in an inferior view and color them in. g.------- Answer Key: a. Frontal/obe, b. Cranial nerves, c. Optic chiasma, d. Pituitary, e. Temporal lobe, f. Mammillary body, g. Pons, h. Medulla oblongata, i. Cerebellum Chapter Five Nervous System MIDSAGITIAL SECTION OF THE BRAIN When the brain is sectioned in the midsagittal plane, many internal features are visible. One of the most obvious features is the crescentshaped corpus callosum. Superficial to this is the cerebral hemisphere with the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, and occipital lobe. Locate the thalamus, hypothalamus, and mammillary body along with the optic chiasma and the pituitary gland. The pineal gland is a small structure at the posterior aspect of the thalamus. These structures are all part of the forebrain. The midbrain is a small section with the cerebral peduncles forming the inferior aspect of the midbrain and the f. I meulcaI KAPLA!._ 119 cerebral aqueduct as a narrow tube between the peduncles and the corpora quadrigemina. The corpora consist of the superior colliculi which are responsible for visual reflexes and the inferior colliculi which are responsible for auditory reflexes. Posterior and inferior to the midbrain is the hindbrain. It consists of the pons, the cerebellum and the medulla oblongata. The pons is a large, oval-shaped structure. The cerebellum is visible with the arbor vitae (white matter of the cerebellum) and a triangular space known as the fourth ventricle. The medulla oblongata is the terminal part of the hindbrain. Label the features of the midsagittal section of the brain and color them in. g. _ d. c. _ J.----b. --',-_--'- a. k. _ f. _ q._------- p._--o. Answer Key: a. Optic chiasma, b. Mammillary body, c. Hypothalamus, d. Frontal lobe, e. Thalamus, f. Corpus callosum, g. Pineal gland, h. Parietal lobe, i. Superior colliculus, J. Cerebral aqueduct, k. Occipital lobe, I. Inferior colliculus, m. Cerebellum, n. Fourthventricle, o. Medulla oblongata, p. Pons, q. Cerebral peduncle, r. Pituitary _ Chapter Five Nervous System IAPLAN·· I me dlea 121 and sulci (depressed areas). The longitudinal fissure is the deep cleft that separates the cerebral hemispheres. The cerebral hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum. Deep in the hemispheres are spaces known as the lateral ventricles and the third ventricle is a space in the middle part of the brain. On the sides of the third ventricle is the thalamus and the floor of the third ventricle is the hypothalamus. The pituitary is suspended from the hypothalamus by the infundibulum. CORONAL SECTION OF THE BRAIN When the brain is sectioned in the coronal plane, the convolutions are obvious. The gray matter is on the external aspect of the brain and the white matter is internal. There are deep sections of gray matter in the brain and these are known as basal nuclei. The external gray matter is known as the cerebral cortex and is divided into the gyri (raised areas) ~b )~"" , c. ":2X 7~\ d e " £. _ (g._-- ,',/ )' I Answer Key: a. Longitudinal fissure, b. Cerebral cortex (gray matter), c. Corpus callosum, d. Lateral ventricle, e. White matter, f. Thalamus, g. Third ventricle, h. Basal nuclei I h.---- Chapter Five Nervous System LIMBIC SYSTEM The limbic system is deep in the cerebrum and performs numerous functions. The system has an important role in memory and in emotions (both positive and negative). The sense of smell enters the limbic system and has interpretive centers there. The cingulate gyrus is a curved part of the system and coordinates sensory input with emotions. The hippocampus and amygdala are also parts of the limbic system. The a. 1.-- h. I KAPLANd'. I me lea 123 amygdala plays a role in both arousal and aversion and the hippocampus is involved in memory formation. The hippocampal gyrus is part of the temporal lobe and takes sensory information to the hippocampus. Memory apparently enters the limbic system as damage to the limbic system impairs memory formation. The storage of memory occurs in other parts of the brain. The mammillary body receives olfactory inputs and the fornix connects the mammillary body to the hippocampus. Label and color the parts of the limbic system. _ _ _ g. - - - - - - - - f. e. Answer Key: a. Cingulate gyrus, b. Fornix, c. Thalamus, d. Hippocampal gyrus, e. Hippocampus, f. Amygdala, g. Mammillary body, h. Olfactory bulb, I. Hypothalamus Chapter Five Nervous System FUNCTIONAL AREAS OF THE CEREBRUM The cerebrum can be described not only physically but also in terms of the functional areas. The functions of language are many and have different areas of specialization. The motor speech area (Broca's area) is typically on the left side of the frontal lobe and it involves the formation of words. Coordination of the tongue and other parts of the vocal apparatus occur here. Wernicke's area is located in the parieto-temporal region and is involved in the syntax of speech. Wernicke's area allows for the formation of sentence structure while Broca's area is involved in the articulation of speech. The primary motor cortex is located in the precentral gyrus and it determines what body muscles to move. The motor association area is just anterior to the primary motor cortex. The primary somatosensory a. KmAPeLAN(I' 125 The posterior part of the brain includes the visual association area. If this area is damaged, then sight can be impaired or lost completely. The angular gyrus is one of the areas associated with reading. The temporal lobe includes the primary auditory cortex and the auditory association area. Label these functional areas of the brain and color each one in a different color. You may want to use different shades of colors for related areas. For example, you may want to color the primary motor cortex with one shade of green and the related motor association area with another shade of green. _ f. h. -.eal cortex receives sensory information from the body and has a sensory association area just posterior to it. On the inferior part of the postcentral gyrus is the primary gustatory cortex. Here is where the sense of taste is interpreted. b. _ I _ Answer Key: a. Motor association area, b. Primary motor cortex, c. Primary somatosensory cortex, d. Wernicke's area, e. Angular (reading) gyrus, f. Visual area, g. Visual association, h. Auditory cortex, i. Motor speech _ Chapter Five Nervous System The brain has hollow cavities enclosed in nervous tissue called ventricles. Each cerebral hemisphere has a lateral ventricle and these lead into a central third ventricle via the interventricular foramina. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is produced from blood capillaries called choroid plexuses in the ventricles and this fluid flows slowly through the ventricles. There are choroid plexuses in all of the ventricles of the brain. The CSF from the b. ....... ~.. , ........ ",,:,': .... ~~~~.. ........ :;.::. ..- ..' . .... ',' . .... ". '.~'" .. .... _ . :.•••••:::: r- ..' d. e. UPLANd'· lea I 127 lateral ventricles flows into the third ventricle. From the third ventricle the CSF flows into the cerebral aqueduct to the fourth ventricle which is located anterior to the cerebellum. From the fourth ventricle, CSF exits to the space between the brain and the skull. CSF cushions the brain from mechanical damage and 'floats' the brain in a fluid medium. The CSF is returned to the cardiovascular system by venous sinuses. Label the ventricles, foramina, and the mesencephalic aqueduct. Color in the spaces after you have labeled them. VENTRICLES a. I me _ .....::::::.:.:.., Answer Key: a. Lateral ventricle, b. Third ventricle, c. Cerebral aqueduct, d. Interventncular foramen, e. Fourth ventricle _ Chapter Five Nervous System I CEREBROSPII\JAL FLUID PATHWAY Both the brain and spinal cord have layers that cover the nervous tissue. These are known as the meninges. The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is produced in the choroid plexuses and then exits to the outside of the brain where it is absorbed in the venous sinus. Label and color the structures and trace the flow of cerebrospinal fluid in the schematic from its source to its reabsorption in the cardiovascular system. a. - - d.- _ _ a. - - _ Answer Key: a. Cerebrospinal fluid, b. Choroid plexus, c. Venous sinus, d. Interventricular foramen, e. Third ventricle, f. Cerebral aqueduct, g. Fourth ventricle I IAPLAN·· medlea 129 Chapter Five Nervous System I 1m APeLAN(I' -Ical 131 SPINAL CORD The spinal cord is attached to the brain at the foramen magnum. It expands just below this junction as the cervical enlargement. This enlargement is due to the increased neural connections with the upper extremities. Another increase in the diameter of the cord is the lumbar enlargement and it is due to the neural connections with the lower extremities. The end of the cord is the conus medullaris and this is found at the region of the first or second lumbar vertebra. The shortness of the spinal cord occurs because it matures early and the vertebral column continues to grow. The neural fibers continue in the vertebral canal as the cauda equina, a structure that resembles a horse's tail. The cord is attached to the coccyx by an extension of the pia mater called the filum terminale. c. Answer Key: a. Dura mater, b. Cervical enlargement, c. Spinal nerves, d. Lumbar enlargement, e. Conusmedullaris, f. Cauda equina, g. Filum terminale, h. Coccygeal ligament _~~~~~~~~_ Chapter Five Nervous System CRANIAL NERVES The cranial nerves are those nerves that attach to the brain. They are paired and are numbered (typically by Roman numerals) from anterior to posterior. The olfactory nerve is a sensory nerve that receives the sense of smell from the nose and transmits it to the brain. The optic nerve takes visual impulses from the eye while the oculomotor nerve mostly takes motor impulses to several muscles that move the eye. The trochlear nerve takes motor impulses to the superior oblique muscle. The trochlear nerve is so named because it innervates a muscle that passes through a loop called the trochlea. The trigeminal nerve is a large nerve located laterally in the pons. It is a mixed nerve (having both sensory and motor functions) that has three branches. The ophthalmic branch innervates the upper head while the maxillary branch innervates the region around the maxilla. The mandibular branch innervates the I KAPLAlf I medlea 133 jaw. The abducens nerve is posterior to the trigeminal and is located exiting the brain between the pons and the medulla oblongata. It is a motor nerve to the lateral rectus muscle of the eye. On the anterior portion of the medulla oblongata is the facial nerve, which is both a sensory and motor nerve to the face and the tongue. The vestibulocochlear nerve is a sensory nerve that receives impulses from the ear. It picks up auditory stimuli as well as information about equilibrium. The glossopharyngeal nerve is a nerve that carries both sensory and motor impulses. It innervates the tongue and throat. A large nerve on the side of the medulla oblongata is the vagus nerve. It is also a mixed nerve carrying both sensory and motor impulses. The vagus nerve innervates organs in the thoracic and abdominal regions. The accessory nerve is inferior to the vagus nerve and is a motor nerve to the neck muscles. The hypoglossal nerve is a motor nerve to the tongue. Label the cranial nerves and color each pair a different color. b.- _ c.-- _ d.--- _ f. _ h. _ 1. 1. Answer Key: a. Olfactory, b. Optic, c. Oculomotor, d. Trochlear, e. Tngeminal, f. Abducens, g. Facial, h. Vestibulocochlear, i. Glossopharyngeal, J. Vagus, k. Accessory, I. Hypoglossal _ Chapter Five Nervous System SPINAL CORD AND SPINAL NERVES 135 a. fM<·~·Vb. When seen in cross section, the spinal cord is composed of an internal arrangement of gray matter resembling a butterfly and an external white matter. The two thin strips of gray matter are the posterior gray horns and the more rounded sections are the anterior gray horns. The lateral gray horns are found in the thoracic and lumbar regions. The hole in the middle of the spinal cord is the central canal and the gray matter that surrounds the central canal is the gray commissure. The spinal cord has two main depressions in it, the posterior median sulcus and the anterior median fissure. Label the parts of the spinal cord and color in the regions. ~c. '. ;~ d . - - - - - - - - e. - _ f.------- g.----- Attached to the spinal cord are the spinal nerves that take impulses from the spinal cord to the peripheral nerves and impulses to the spinal cord. The spinal nerves are mixed nerves that pass through the intervertebral foramina of the vertebral column. The spinal nerve splits into a dorsal root and a ventral root. The dorsal root ganglion is a swelling of the dorsal root within its intervertebral foramen. The dorsal root ganglion contains the nerve cell bodies of the sensory neurons corning from the body. The ganglion leads to the dorsal root which branches into the rootlets. These branches carry sensory information to the posterior gray horn of the spinal cord. The ventral root carries motor information from the anterior gray horn and innervates muscles. Both the brain and spinal cord have layers that cover the nervous tissue. These are known as the meninges and there are three layers. The outermost layer is the dura mater and it is a tough connective tissue layer. Underneath this layer is the arachnoid mater, which is so named because it looks like a spider web. At a deeper layer is the subarachnoid space, which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid. The deepest of the layers is the pia mater and it is located on the surface of the nervous tissue. Label the meninges and the structures associated with the spinal cord in both the horizontal view and the lateral view and color them in. KAPLA~. I I meulCa .~~ ~\ ~ ... ~; ~ h.------ -~~ -~ -~ ==:::::::. ------- 1. - - - - - - - - - a. 1. _ J.-----b. _ g._---- d. _ c. _ k. _ e. Answer Key:a. Pia mater, b.Ventral root, c. Dorsal root,d. Dorsal root ganglion, e. Posterior mediansulcus, f. Arachnoid, g. Spinal nerve, h. Dura mater, i. Anterior grayhorn, j. Lateral gray horn,k. Central canal, I.Anterior medianfissure, m. Posterior grayhorn _ Chapter Five Nervous System PLEXUSES AND THORACIC NERVES There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves grouped by region of the vertebral column. The cervical nerves are the most superior and there are eight pairs of them. The first cervical nerves arise superior to the first cervical vertebra. The thoracic nerves arise as twelve pairs. They lead to nerves that innervate the muscles between the ribs and associated skin. There are five pairs of lumbar nerves and five pairs of sacral nerves. The last pair of spinal nerves is the coccygeal nerves. I KAPLA~. meulCa I 137 cervical plexus which arises from the first five cervical spinal nerves. The brachial plexus receives input from the fifth through eighth cervical nerves and the first pair of thoracic nerves. The lumbar plexus arises from the first four pairs of lumbar nerves and the sacral plexus is associated with the last two pairs of lumbar nerves and the first four pairs of sacral nerves. Sometimes the lumbar and sacral plexuses are grouped together as the lumbosacral plexus. Use one color to color in the short segments of the spinal nerves and label the plexuses. Color each plexus a different color. A plexus is a web-like arrangement of nerves that is near the spinal cord and gives rise to the terminal nerves. The most superior plexus is the a. b. _ e. _ _ f. _ g.-----c. ---;------;----+--.,-' \ h. d. ----+-----.!!-~_v_ ~~~~~=~===I__l.-------- Answer Key: a. Cervical plexus, b. Brachial plexus, c. Lumbar plexus, d. Sacral plexus, e. Cervical nerves, f. Thoracic nerves, g. Lumbar nerves, h. Sacral nerves, i. Coccygeal nerves Chapter Five Nervous System 1\1 ERVES OF CERVICAL PLEXUS The cervical plexus is a complex interweaving of branches from the first five pairs of cervical nerves. The hypoglossal nerve enters this plexus from the head. The ansa cervicalis is an arched structure (ansa is Latin for loop) that has many nerves innervating the anterior throat muscles. The major nerves of the cervical plexus are the two phrenic nerves that descend to the diaphragm and stimulate the diaphragm to contract. Label the major features of the cervical plexus and color the hypoglossal nerve, the ansa cervicalis, and the phrenic nerve. Contributions to the accessory nerve leave the cervical plexus from C2, 3, and 4. f. _ g.----- h. Answer Key: a. C 1, b. C2, c. C3, d. C4, e. C5, f. Hypoglossal nerve, g. Ansa cervicalis, h. Phrenic nerve / _ I me I lea UPLANd'· 139 Chapter Five Nervous System NERVES OF BRACHIAL PLEXUS The brachial plexus is associated with spinal nerves C4-8 and Tl. It leads to major nerves of the shoulder and arm. The axillary nerve arises from the brachial plexus and innervates the deltoid and the teres minor muscles. It also receives stimulation from the skin of the shoulder and lateral upper limb. The radial nerve innervates the triceps brachii muscle and the extensors of the forearm and hand. The musculocutaneous nerve innervates the anterior muscles of the arm (biceps brachii, KAPLAlfdI I me lea brachialis, and coracobrachialis) and the skin on the lateral side of the forearm. The median nerve runs the length of the arm and forearm and innervates the anterior muscles of the forearm and the muscles associated with the thumb. The ulnar nerve passes along the posterior side of the medial epicondyle of the humerus and gives that tingling sensation of the "funny bone" when hit. It innervates the muscles of the medial side of the anterior hand. Label these nerves and related structures and color them in. Select a different color for each nerve. 1. _ Scalene muscle g._---h. _ 1. / First rib / / k. _ 141 Axillary artery J.----------- Answer Key: a. C4, b. C5, c. C6, d. C7, e. C8, f. T1, g. Axillary nerve, h. Musculocutaneous nerve, i. Radial nerve, J. Median nerve, k. Ulnar nerve, I. Vertebra C4 Chapter Five Nervous System NERVES OF LUMBAR PLEXUS The lumbar plexus leads to nerves on the anterior and the medial aspect of the thigh. A large femoral nerve arises from the lumbar plexus and innervates the four muscles of the quadriceps femoris group on the anterior thigh. The obturator nerve innervates the adductor muscles of the medial thigh and the genitofemoral nerve is a sensory nerve that receives impulses from the male scrotal sac and the labia majora in I med'.leaI KAPLAN females. The iliohypogastric nerve innervates the muscles of the abdomen and the skin of the belly. The ilioinguinal nerve innervates the same muscles as does the iliohypogastric nerve and it receivessensory information from the base of the penis and the scrotum in males, and from the labia majora in females. The lateral femoral cutaneous nerve receivessensory information from the skin of the lateral thigh. Label these nerves in the illustration and color them in with a different color. Nerve roots: Psoas major muscle g._------ h. _ 1. 143 _ J.------- ,I Answer Key: a. T 12, b. L1, c. L2., d. L3. e. L4, f. L5, g. iliohypogastric nerve, h. ilioinguinal nerve, i. Lateral femoral cutaneous nerve, j. Femoral nerve, k. Genitofemoral nerve, I. Obturator nerve Chapter Five Nervous System Nerve roots: a. NERVES OF SACRAL PLEXUS The sacral plexus has nerves that provide genital innervation and also has motor nerves to the posterior hip, thigh, and anterior and posterior leg. The pudendal nerve innervates the penis and scrotum in males, the clitoris, labia, and distal vagina in females, and the muscles of the pelvic floor in both sexes. The sacral plexus also has the superior and inferior gluteal nerves that innervate the gluteal muscles and the tibial nerve and the common fibular nerve. These last two nerves are grouped together as the sciatic nerve, a large nerve of the posterior thigh. The tibial nerve innervates the hamstring muscles, the muscles of the calf, and the muscles originating on the foot. The common fibular nerve innervates the short head of the biceps femoris muscle, the muscles on the lateral side of the leg and the anterior surface of the leg. Cutaneous branches innervate the skin and muscular branches take motor information to the muscles. Label these nerves and color them in. b. ~ ____ c. _---- d. ______ e. ____ p.------o. _ n . - - - - - -_ _ Answer Key: a. L4, b. L5, c. S1, d. S2, e. 53, f. S4, g. S5, h. Coccygeal nerve, i, Superior gluteal nerve, j. Inferior gluteal nerve, k. Pudendal nerve, I. Common fibular nerve, m. Tibial nerve, n. Sciatic nerve, o. Cutaneous branches, p. Muscular branches I meulCaI KAPlA'!._ 145 Chapter Five Nervous System DERMATOMES Dermatomes are regions of the skin innervated by nerves. The nerves receive sensory inputs from the skin and take that information back to the spinal cord. The clinical importance of dermatomes is the role they play in assessing spinal cord damage. If there is a significant spinal cord I KAPLAN'dI me lea 147 injury, then the regions below the level of the injury may not transmit sensory signals to the brain. Lack of sensation in specific areas of the skin provides a base of understanding of where the trauma may be located. Color in the regions that are innervated by the cervical nerves with one color and choose separate colors for the thoracic, lumbar, and sacral innervation. Label the innervations of the dermatomes. Answer Key: a. C2, b. C5, c. C6, d. C7, e. T1, f. T4, g. TlO, h. T12, I. C7, j. S5, k. L1, L S1, m. L5 Chapter Five Nervous System I me UPLANd'· lea AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM-SYMPATH ETIC DIVISION The autonomic nervous system (ANS) regulates automatic functions of the human body. Changes in heart rate, pupil dilation, digestive functions, and blood flow to the kidney are all controlled by the ANS. There is some possibility of conscious regulation of parts of the ANS, but, for the most part, it functions without conscious control. There are two divisions of the autonomic nervous system. The resting state of the body is controlled by the parasympathetic division. Digestion, kidney filtration, erection of the clitoris, erection of the penis, and pupil constriction are some of the functions of the parasympathetic division. This division is also known as the craniosacral division because the nerves exit the central nervous system (CNS) in these locations. The cranial segments go to the eye, salivary glands, heart, lung, digestive system, and kidneys. The sacral segments go to the lower digestive tract, bladder, and reproductive organs. The sympathetic division controls the "fight or flight" response of the body, shutting down the digestive functions, inhibiting erections, shunting blood away from the kidneys, and dilating the pupils. The sympathetic division increases heart rate, dilates capillaries in the lungs, brain and muscle tissue, and stimulates the adrenal glands. This division is also known as the thoracolumbar division because the nerves exit the CNS in the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord. There are ganglia associated with the sympathetic division and these are located on either side of the ventral portion of the vertebral column. They are called the sympathetic chain ganglia and the neurons from the thoracolumbar division synapse with nerve cells in these ganglia. Answer Key: a. Preganglionic, b. Postganglionic, c. Ganglia, d. Sympathetic trunk, e. T1, f. L2 a. J _ ........... b . _ ~ c. __-,-_ ,:::.. K~ !: "\fbjj) . ." . ...... .1.....)1 ~ .::' :" y.::...._. :/.... :;: 1 \ '