General Psychology Study Resources

What is Psychology The term psychology comes from two Greek words: psyche, which means “soul,” and logos, "the study of." These root words were first combined in the 16th century, at a time when the human soul, spirit, or mind was seen as distinct from the body. 4 What is Psychology? Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mind. This definition contains three elements: 1- psychology is a scientific enterprise that obtains knowledge through objective methods of observation and experimentation. 2- psychologists study behavior, which refers to any action or reaction that can be measured or observed 3- psychologists study the mind, which refers to both conscious and unconscious mental states. These states cannot actually be seen – such as thoughts, feelings, sensations, perceptions, memories, dreams, motives 5 What Is Psychology? Psychology is both an applied and academic field that studies the human mind and behavior. Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior of people and other organisms and mind-behavior interaction. Research in psychology seeks to understand and explain thought, emotion, and behavior. Applications of psychology include mental health treatment, performance enhancement, self-help, and many other areas affecting health and daily life. 6 psychologists Many people think of psychologists as individuals who dispense advice, analyze personality, and help those who are troubled or mentally ill. But psychology is far more than the treatment of personal problems. Psychologists strive to understand the mysteries of human nature why people think, feel, and act as they do. Some psychologists also study animal behavior, using their findings to determine laws of behavior that apply to all organisms and to formulate theories about how humans behave and think. 7 Psychology and Other Sciences Psychology overlaps with other sciences that investigate behavior and mental processes. Certain parts of the field share much with the biological sciences, especially physiology, the biological study of the functions of living organisms and their parts. Like physiologists, many psychologists study the inner workings of the body from a biological perspective. However, psychologists focus on the activity of the brain and nervous system 8 Cont. The social sciences of sociology and anthropology, which study human societies and cultures, also intersect with psychology. For example, both psychology and sociology explore how people behave when they are in groups. However, psychologists try to understand behavior from the vantage point of the individual, whereas sociologists focus on how behavior is shaped by social forces and social institutions. 9 Cont. Anthropologists investigate behavior as well, paying attention to the similarities and differences between human cultures around the world. Psychology is closely connected with psychiatry, which is the branch of medicine specializing in mental illnesses. The study of mental illness is one of the largest areas of research in psychology. Psychiatrists and psychologists differ in their training. A person seeking to become a psychiatrist first obtains a medical degree and then engages in further formal medical education in psychiatry. Most psychologists have a doctoral graduate degree in psychology 10 History of Psychology One of the youngest sciences, psychology did not emerge as a formal discipline until the late 19th century. But its roots extend to the ancient past. For centuries, philosophers and religious scholars have wondered about the nature of the mind and the soul. Thus, the history of psychological thought begins in philosophy 11 Philosophical Roots From about 600 to 300 BC, Greek philosophers inquired about a wide range of psychological topics. They were especially interested in the nature of knowledge and how human beings come to know the world, a field of philosophy known as epistemology. The Greek philosopher Socrates and his followers, Plato and Aristotle, wrote about pleasure and pain, knowledge, beauty, desire, free will, motivation, rationality, memory, and the nature of perception. 12 Cont. They also theorized about whether human traits are innate or the product of experience. In the field of ethics, philosophers of the ancient world probed a variety of psychological questions: Are people inherently good? How can people attain happiness? What motives or drives do people have? Are human beings naturally social? 13 Cont. Many ancient societies thought that mental illness resulted from supernatural causes. Both Socrates and Plato focused on psychological forces as the cause of mental disturbance. More recently, many other men and women contributed to the birth of modern psychology. In the 1600s French philosopher René Descartes theorized that the body and mind are separate entities. He regarded the body as a physical entity and the mind as a spiritual entity, and believed the two interacted only through the pineal gland. This position became known as dualism. 14 Cont. English philosophers Thomas Hobbes and John Locke disagreed. They argued that all human experiences—including sensations, images, thoughts, and feelings—are physical processes occurring within the brain and nervous system. Therefore, these experiences are valid subjects of study. In this view, which later became known as monism, the mind and body are one and the same. 15 The Birth of Psychology as a Science Modern psychology is deeply rooted in the older disciplines of philosophy and physiology. But the official birth of psychology is often traced to 1879, at the University of Leipzig, Germany. There, physiologist Wilhelm Wundt established the first laboratory dedicated to the scientific study of the mind. In the United States, William James observed the emergence of psychology with great interest. 16 Cont. James was fascinated by psychology and philosophy. In 1875 he offered his first course in psychology. In 1890 James published a two-volume book entitled Principles of Psychology. It immediately became the leading psychology text in the United States, and it brought James a worldwide reputation as a man of great ideas and inspiration. Today, historians consider James the founder of American psychology. 17 Cont. James’s students also made lasting contributions to the field. In 1883 Stanley Hall established the first true American psychology laboratory at Johns Hopkins University, and in 1892 he founded and became the first president of the American Psychological Association. Mary Calkins created an important technique for studying memory and conducted one of the first studies of dreams. In 1905 she was elected the first female president of the American Psychological Association. Thorndike conducted some of the first experiments on animal learning and wrote a textbook on educational psychology. 18 Wilhelm Wundt –Leipzig, Germany –The “father of psychology” –Founder of modern psychology –Opened the first psychology lab in 1879 –applied laboratory techniques to study of the mind Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) 19 Schools of Thought Throughout psychology's history, a number of different schools of thought have formed to explain human thought and behavior. These schools of thought often rise to dominance for a period of time. While these schools of thought are sometimes perceived as competing forces, each perspective has contributed to our understanding of psychology. The following are some of the major schools of thought in psychology. 20 Structuralism Becomes Psychology’s First School of Thought Edward B. Titchener, would go on to found psychology’s first major school of thought. According to the structuralists, human consciousness could be broken down into much smaller parts. Using a process known as introspection (examining your own feelings), trained subjects would attempt to break down their responses and reactions to the most basic sensation and perceptions. While structuralism is notable for its emphasis on scientific research, its methods were unreliable, limiting, and subjective. When Titchener died in 1927, structuralism essentially died with him. 21 E.B. Titchener •Wundt’s student, professor at Cornell University •Analyzed the intensity, clarity and quality of the parts of consciousness •Founder of structuralism E. B. Titchener (1867–1927) 22 The Functionalism of William James Psychology flourished in American during the mid- to late1800s. William James emerged as one of the major American psychologists during this period. His ideas eventually served as the basis for a new school of thought known as functionalism. The focus of functionalism was on how behavior actually works to help people live in their environment. Functionalists utilized methods such as direct observation. While both of these early schools of thought emphasized human consciousness, their conceptions of it were significantly different. While the structuralists sought to break down mental processes into their smallest parts, the functionalists believed that consciousness existed as a more continuous and changing process. While functionalism is no longer a separate school of thought, it would go on to influence later psychologists and theories of human thought and behavior. 23 William James •First American psychologist •Started psychology at Harvard in 1870s •Opposed Wundt and Titchener’s approach •Author of the first psychology textbook •Founder of Functionalism –functionalism – influenced by Darwin to focus on how behaviors help us adapt to the environment William James (1842–1910) 24 Freud and Psychoanalysis Alongside Wundt and James, a third prominent leader of the new psychology was Sigmund Freud, a Viennese neurologist of the late 19th and early 20th century. Through his clinical practice, Freud developed a very different approach to psychology. Freud formulated a theory of personality and a form of psychotherapy known as psychoanalysis. Freud introduced his new theory in The Interpretation of Dreams (1889), the first of 24 books he would write. The theory is summarized in Freud’s last book, An Outline of Psychoanalysis, published in 1940, after his death. Freud believed that people are motivated largely by unconscious forces, including strong sexual and aggressive drives. He likened the human mind to an iceberg: The small tip that floats on the water is the conscious part, and the vast region beneath the surface comprises the unconscious. 25 Cont. Freud believed that although unconscious motives can be temporarily suppressed, they must find a suitable outlet in order for a person to maintain a healthy personality. To probe the unconscious mind, Freud developed the psychotherapy technique of free association. In free association, the patient reclines and talks about thoughts, wishes, memories, and whatever else comes to mind. The analyst tries to interpret these verbalizations to determine their psychological significance. In particular, Freud encouraged patients to free associate about their dreams, which he believed were the “royal road to the unconscious.” According to Freud, dreams are disguised expressions of deep, hidden impulses. 26 Cont. 27 Sigmund Freud (18561939) • Austrian physician that focused on illness • Founder of the psychoanalytic perspective • Believed that abnormal behavior originated from unconscious drives and conflicts 28 Behaviorism In search of more-scientific methods, psychologists gradually turned away from research on invisible mental processes and began to study only behavior that could be observed directly. This approach, known as behaviorism, ultimately revolutionized psychology and remained the dominant school of thought for nearly 50 years. The foundation for the new behaviorism was American psychologist Thorndike. In 1898 Thorndike conducted a series of experiments on animal learning. Thorndike proposed the law of effect, which states that behaviors that are followed by a positive outcome are repeated, while those followed by a negative outcome or none at all are extinguished. 29 Cont. In 1906 Russian physiologist Pavlov stumbled onto one of the most important principles of learning and behavior. Pavlov was investigating the digestive process in dogs by putting food in their mouths and measuring the flow of saliva. He found that after repeated testing, the dogs would salivate in anticipation of the food, even before he put it in their mouth. He soon discovered that if he rang a bell just before the food was presented each time, the dogs would eventually salivate at the mere sound of the bell. Pavlov had discovered a basic form of learning called classical conditioning in which an organism comes to associate one stimulus with another. Later research showed that this basic process can account for how people form certain preferences and fears. 30 Cont. Many American psychologists were quick to adopt behaviorism. Aiming to predict and control behavior, the behaviorists’ strategy was to vary a stimulus in the environment and observe an organism's response. The most forceful leader of behaviorism was Skinner, an American psychologist who began studying animal learning in the 1930s. Skinner coined the term reinforcement and invented a new research apparatus called the Skinner box for use in testing animals. Based on his experiments with rats and pigeons, Skinner identified a number of basic principles of learning. He concluded that nearly all behavior is shaped by complex patterns of reinforcement in a person’s environment, a process that he called operant conditioning 31 Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) • Behaviorist • Russian Physiologist • Studied learning through associations in animals • Emphasized the study of observable behaviors 32 B.F. Skinner •Behaviorist •American psychologist at Harvard •Focused on learning through rewards and observation •studied learning and effect of reinforcement B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) 33 Gestalt psychology Like behaviourism, developed as a reaction against structuralism. Gestalt psychologists believed that human beings and other animals perceive the external world as an organized pattern, not as individual sensations. For example, a film consists of thousands of individual still pictures, but we see what looks like smooth, continuous movement. The German word Gestalt means pattern, form, or shape. Unlike the behaviourists, the Gestaltists believed that behaviour should be studied as an organized pattern rather than as separate incidents of stimulus and response. The familiar saying "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts" expresses an important principle of the Gestalt movement. Gestalt psychology was founded about 1912 by Wertheimer, a German psychologist. During the 1930's, Wertheimer and two colleagues took the Gestalt movement to the United States. 34 Wolfgang Kohler • Created Gestalt Psychology • The whole is different from the sum of its parts. • Integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes. Wolfgang Kohler (1865-1965) 35 Humanistic Psychology: “The Third Force” Faced with a choice between psychoanalysis and behaviorism, many psychologists sensed a void in psychology’s conception of human nature. Freud had drawn attention to the darker forces of the unconscious, and Skinner was interested only in the effects of reinforcement on observable behavior. Humanistic psychology was born out of a desire to understand the conscious mind, free will, human dignity, and the capacity for self-reflection and growth. An alternative to psychoanalysis and behaviorism, humanistic psychology became known as “the third force.” The humanistic movement was led by American psychologists Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. According to Rogers, all humans are born with a drive to achieve their full capacity and to behave in ways that are consistent with their true selves. 36 Cont. Maslow theorized that all people are motivated to fulfill a hierarchy of needs. At the bottom of the hierarchy are basic physiological needs, such as hunger, thirst, and sleep. Further up the hierarchy are needs for safety and security, needs for belonging and love, and esteem-related needs for status and achievement. Once these needs are met, Maslow believed, people strive for self-actualization, the ultimate state of personal fulfillment. As Maslow put it, “A musician must make music, an artist must paint, a poet must write, if he is ultimately to be at peace with himself. What a man can be, he must be.” 37 Carl Rogers (1902-1987) & Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) • Helped to create Humanistic Psychology • Stressed the study of conscious experience and an individual’s free will • Healthy individuals strive to reach their potential. 38 The Cognitive Revolution From the 1920s through the 1960s, behaviorism dominated psychology in the United States. Eventually, however, psychologists began to move away from strict behaviorism. Many became increasingly interested in cognition, a term used to describe all the mental processes involved in acquiring, storing, and using knowledge. Such processes include perception, memory, thinking, problem solving, imagining, and language. This shift in emphasis toward cognition had such a profound influence on psychology that it has often been called the cognitive revolution. One reason for psychologists’ renewed interest in mental processes was the invention of the computer, which provided an intriguing metaphor for the human mind. The hardware of the computer was likened to the brain, and computer programs provided a step-bystep model of how information from the environment is input, stored, and retrieved to produce a response. Based on the computer metaphor, psychologists began to formulate information-processing models of human thought and behavior. 39 Why Study Psychology History? Contemporary psychology is interested in an enormous range of topics, looking a human behavior and mental process from the neural level to the cultural level. Psychologists study human issues that begin before birth and continue until death. By understanding the history of psychology, you can gain a better understanding of how these topics are studied and what we have learned thus far. 40