Introduction to Psychology

The term psychology comes from two Greek words: psyche, which means “soul,” and logos, "the study of." These root words were first combined in the 16th century, at a time when the human soul, spirit, or mind was seen as distinct from the body. 3 Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mind. definition contains three elements:  scientific -obtains knowledge through objective methods of observation and experimentation.  Behavior-which refers to any action or reaction that can be measured or observed  Mind-which refers to both conscious and unconscious mental states  cannot actually be seen – such as thoughts, feelings, sensations, perceptions, memories, dreams, motives 4 Psychology is both an applied and academic field that studies the human mind and behavior. Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior of people and other organisms and mind-behavior interaction. Research in psychology seeks to understand and explain thought, emotion, and behavior. Applications of psychology include mental health treatment, performance enhancement, self-help, and many other areas affecting health and daily life. 5 Many think of psychologists as individuals who dispense advice, analyze personality, and help those who are troubled or mentally ill. But psychology is far more than the treatment of personal problems. Psychologists strive to understand the mysteries of human nature why people think, feel, and act as they do. Some psychologists study animal behavior, using their findings to determine laws of behavior that apply to all organisms and to formulate theories about how humans behave and think. 6  Psychology overlaps with other sciences that investigate behavior and mental processes.  Certain parts of the field share much with the biological sciences, especially physiology-the biological study of the functions of living organisms and their parts.  Like physiologists, many psychologists study the inner workings of the body from a biological perspective. However, psychologists focus on the activity of the brain and nervous system Physiology: the branch of biology that deals with the normal functions of living organisms and their parts.  The social sciences of sociology and anthropology, which study human societies and cultures, also intersect with psychology.  For example, both psychology and sociology explore how people behave when they are in groups.  However, psychologists try to understand behavior from the vantage point of the individual, whereas sociologists focus on how behavior is shaped by social forces and social institutions. 7  Anthropologists investigate behavior as well, paying attention to the similarities and differences between human cultures around the world.  Psychology is closely connected with psychiatry, which is the branch of medicine specializing in mental illnesses. The study of mental illness is one of the largest areas of research in psychology.  Psychiatrists and psychologists differ in their training. A person seeking to become a psychiatrist first obtains a medical degree and then engages in further formal medical education in psychiatry. Most psychologists have a doctoral graduate degree in psychology 8  psychology did not emerge as a formal discipline until the late 19th century.  Seven thousand years ago it was assumed that psychological problems were caused by evil spirits. Evil spirits were ridden by trephining.  For centuries, philosophers and religious scholars have wondered about the nature of the mind and the soul. Thus, the history of psychological thought begins in philosophy Trephining, also known as trepanning, is an ancient medical practice that involves cutting a hole in the skull of a person. 9  Can be traced back to the ancient Greeks.  From about 600 to 300 BC, Greek philosophers inquired about a wide range of psychological topics. They were especially interested in the nature of knowledge and how human beings come to know the world, a field of philosophy known as epistemology. The  Greek philosopher Socrates and his followers, Plato Epistemology: is the study of knowledge acquisition. It involves an awareness of certain aspects of reality, and it seeks to discover what is known and how it is known. and Aristotle, wrote about pleasure and pain, knowledge, beauty, desire, free will, motivation, rationality, memory, and the nature of perception. 10  They also theorized about whether human traits are innate or the product of experience.  In the field of ethics, philosophers of the ancient world probed a variety of psychological questions: Are people inherently good? How can people attain happiness? What motives or drives do people have? Are human beings naturally social?  17th-century John Lock believe that children were born into the world with minds like “blank slates” (tabula rasa), and that their experiences determined what kind of adults they would become. 11  French philosopher René Descartes theorized that the body and mind are separate entities. He regarded the body as a physical entity and the mind as a spiritual entity, and believed the two interacted only through the pineal gland. This position became known as dualism.  English philosophers Thomas Hobbes and John Locke disagreed. They argued that all human experiences—including sensations, images, thoughts, and feelings—are physical processes occurring within the brain and nervous system. Therefore, these experiences are valid subjects of study. In this view, which later became known as monism, the mind and body are one and the same. Dualism is the view that the mind and body both exist as separate entities. 12  Modern psychology is deeply rooted in the older disciplines of philosophy and physiology.  The formal beginning of psychology is generally considered to be in the late 19th century at the University of Leipzig, Germany.  1879-physiologist Wilhelm Wundt established the first laboratory dedicated to the scientific study of the mind.  In the United States, William James observed the emergence of psychology with great interest. 13  James was fascinated by psychology and philosophy. In 1875 he offered his first course in psychology.  In 1890 James published a two-volume book entitled Principles of Psychology. It immediately became the leading psychology text in the United States, and it brought James a worldwide reputation as a man of great ideas and inspiration.  Today, historians consider James the founder of American psychology.  His students made lasting contributions to the field.  In 1883 Stanley Hall established the first true American psychology laboratory at Johns Hopkins University, and in 1892 he founded and became the first president of the American Psychological Association. 14  Mary Calkins created an important technique for studying memory and conducted one of the first studies of dreams. In 1905 she was elected the first female president of the American Psychological Association.  Thorndike conducted some of the first experiments on animal learning and wrote a textbook on educational psychology. 15 Wilhelm Wundt –Leipzig, Germany –The “father of psychology” –Founder of modern psychology –Opened the first psychology lab in 1879 –applied laboratory techniques to study of the mind Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) 16 Throughout psychology's history, a number of different schools of thought have formed to explain human thought and behavior. These schools of thought often rise to dominance for a period of time. While these schools of thought are sometimes perceived as competing forces, each perspective has contributed to our understanding of psychology. The following are some of the major schools of thought in psychology. 17 STRUCTURALISM  Wundt was responsible for creating the first school of psychological thought called Structuralism  This school focused only on immediate conscious experience and thought.  According to structuralisms, human consciousness could be broken down into much smaller parts. Using a process known as introspection (examining your own feelings).  trained subjects would attempt to break down their responses and reactions to the most basic sensation and perceptions. Introspection: A procedure in which people are presented with a stimulus-such as an image or sentence-and asked to describe, in their own words and in as much detail as they can, what they were experiencing. 18  While structuralism is notable for its emphasis on scientific research, its methods were unreliable, limiting, and subjective.  The focus of study was way too narrow  They studied people only like themselves- very wealthy white males.  No valid research was produced  This school of thought was a great start, but no longer exists. 19 THE NEXT EVOLUTION FUNCTIONALISM  They studied how and why the mind functions.  His ideas served as the basis for a new school of thought known as functionalism-how behavior actually works to help people live in their environment.  It concentrated on what the mind does and how behavior functions. Functionalists asked what role behavior plays in allowing people to adapt to their environments. o for example, a functionalist might examine the function of emotion of fear in preparing us to deal with emergency situations.  Functionalists utilized methods such as direct observation.  This perspective broadened the scope of psychology and applied psychology to practical settings.  This perspective still focused on consciousness but began to examine overt behavior, not just mental processes. 20 PSYCHOLOGY CONTINUED TO EXPAND BASED ON THE EARLY WORK OF THESE PERSPECTIVES Psychologists have different ways of looking at behavior…we will take a quick look and learn more about each area of psychology! See p. 12 PSYCHOANALYSIS  This is one of the most well-known psychological perspectives in history developed by Sigmund Freud (a Viennese neurologist of the late 19th and early 20th century)  Freud believed that emotional problems are due to anxiety from unresolved conflicts that reside in unconscious.  Freud was an early pioneer in treating emotional disorders and was the first to provide counseling and therapy to patients.  Free association and dream interpretation were developed technique to explore the unconscious processes  Freud believed that people are motivated largely by unconscious forces, including strong sexual and aggressive drives. 23 Cont.  Freud was one of the first to treat emotional disorders.  Freud’s theories were the first to suggest that our childhood experiences impact our adult behaviors  The first to provide therapy for patients.  Developed dream interpretation and free association  Freud believed that although unconscious motives can be temporarily suppressed, they must find a suitable outlet in order for a person to maintain a healthy personality.  Free association and dream interpretation were developed techniques to explore the unconscious processes.  Free association: a therapist asks a person in therapy to freely share thoughts, words, and anything else that comes to mind. The thoughts need not be coherent. But it may help if they are authentic.  Freud encouraged patients to free associate about their dreams, which he believed were the “royal road to the unconscious.” According to Freud, dreams are disguised expressions of deep, hidden impulses.  He equated the human mind to an iceberg: The small tip that floats on the water is the conscious part, and the vast region beneath the surface comprises the unconscious.  Hypnosis- is a psychoanalytic therapeutic technique. Supposedly reaches into the unconscious 25 Conscious Level: The small amount of mental activity we know about. • Thoughts • perceptions. Subconscious Level: Things we could be aware of if we wanted or tried. • Memories • stored knowledge. Unconscious Level: Things we are unaware of and cannot become aware of. • Fears • Violent motives • Unacceptable desires • Irrational wishes • Immoral urges • Shameful experiences • Selfish needs 26 oFreud had no scientific data to support his theories. oFreud’s theories (unconscious, libido, etc.) cannot be observed. o Theory explains behavior (post-hoc) after the fact. oObservations not representative of population (very sexist and not multicultural). Argued that childhood experiences are important in personality development. Information outside of awareness does influence us. Defense mechanisms—good descriptions of some of our behaviors. DO CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES AFFECT ADULT LIFE? What are some childhood experiences that you feel have shaped who you are now as an adult? BEHAVIORISM  Behaviorism became a dominant school of thought during the 1950s. It was based upon the work of thinkers such as John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, and B. F. Skinner. The foundation for the new behaviorism was American psychologist Thorndike.  In 1898 Thorndike conducted a series of experiments on animal learning.  Thorndike proposed the law of effect, which states that behaviors that are followed by a positive outcome are repeated, while those followed by a negative outcome or none at all are extinguished.  Behaviorist’s believe people are controlled by their environment. Behaviorism suggests that all behavior can be explained by environmental causes rather than by internal forces.  Behaviorism focused on behavior that can be measured and observable. This returned the scientific approach to psychology.  We can describe, predict, and control that behavior.  We are the result of what we have learned from our environment.  In 1906 Russian physiologist Pavlov stumbled onto one of the most important principles of learning and behavior.  Pavlov was investigating the digestive process in dogs by putting food in their mouths and measuring the flow of saliva.  He found that after repeated testing, the dogs would salivate in anticipation of the food, even before he put it in their mouth.  He soon discovered that if he rang a bell just before the food was presented each time, the dogs would eventually salivate at the mere sound of the bell.  Pavlov had discovered a basic form of learning called classical conditioning in which an organism comes to associate one stimulus with another. Later research showed that this basic process can account for how people form certain preferences and fears. classical conditioning: a form of learning that occurs through the repeated association of 2 or more different stimuli. Learning is said to only have occurred when a particular stimulus consistently produces a response that it did not previously produce. A response that is automatically produced by one stimulus becomes associated, or linked with another stimulus that would normally produce this response. 31  Many American psychologists were quick to adopt behaviorism. Aiming to predict and control behavior, the behaviorists’ strategy was to vary a stimulus in the environment and observe an organism's response.  Skinner began studying animal learning in the 1930s.  Skinner coined the term reinforcement and invented a new research apparatus called the Skinner box for use in testing animals.  Based on his experiments with rats and pigeons, Skinner identified a number of basic principles of learning. He concluded that nearly all behavior is shaped by complex patterns of reinforcement in a person’s environment, a process that he called operant conditioning.  The behavioral school of psychology significantly influenced the course of psychology. Many ideas and techniques that emerged from this school of thought are still widely used today. Behavioral training, token economies, aversion therapy, and other methods are frequently used in psychotherapy and behavior modification programs. aversion therapy: psychotherapy designed to cause a patient to reduce or avoid an undesirable behavior pattern by conditioning the person to associate the behavior with an undesirable stimulus. reinforcement refers to anything that increases the likelihood that a response will occur. For example, reinforcement might involve presenting praise (a reinforcer) immediately after a child puts away their toys (the response). operant conditioning is a process by which humans and animals learn to behave in such a way as to obtain rewards and avoid punishments. 32  Behaviorist  Russian Physiologist  Studied learning through associations in animals  Emphasized the study of observable behaviors 33 B.F. Skinner •Behaviorist •American psychologist at Harvard •Focused on learning through rewards and observation •studied learning and effect of reinforcement B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) 34  Gestalt        psychology was founded about 1912 by Wertheimer, a German psychologist. Gestalt, loosely translated into English, means “shape or “form” Gestalt psychologists believed that human beings and other animals perceive the external world as an organized pattern, not as individual sensations.  For example, a film consists of thousands of individual still pictures, but we see what looks like smooth, continuous movement. The German word Gestalt means pattern, form, or shape. Gestalt psychologists are interested in the way that, within a world of ongoing change and endless variety, people can make sense of much of visual stimuli. Unlike the behaviorists, the Gestaltists believed that behavior should be studied as an organized pattern rather than as separate incidents of stimulus and response. The familiar saying "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts" (example a CD) expresses an important principle of the Gestalt movement. During the 1930's, Wertheimer and two colleagues took the Gestalt movement to the United States. Some examples of Gestalt thinking include explanations for optical phenomena, such as visual illusions. Wertheimer described the phi phenomenon by observing how alternating railway lights created the illusion of movement. The phenomenon suggests that a succession of images seen in rapid sequence are perceived as moving. 35 WOLFGANG KOHLER  Created Gestalt Psychology  The whole is different from the sum of its parts.  Integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes. Wolfgang Kohler (1865-1965) 36 Faced with a choice between psychoanalysis and behaviorism, many psychologists sensed a void in psychology’s conception of human nature. Humanistic psychology developed as a response to psychoanalysis and behaviorism. The development of this school of thought in psychology was heavily influenced by the work of humanist thinkers such as Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Clark Moustakas. Freud had drawn attention to the darker forces of the unconscious, and Skinner was interested only in the effects of reinforcement on observable behavior. Humanistic psychology was born out of a desire to understand the conscious mind, free will, human dignity, and the capacity for self-reflection and growth. An alternative to psychoanalysis and behaviorism, humanistic psychology became known as “the third force.” According to Rogers, all humans are born with a drive to achieve their full capacity and to behave in ways that are consistent with their true selves. 37 While early schools of thought were primarily centered on abnormal human behavior, humanistic psychology differed considerably in its emphasis on helping people achieve and fulfill their potential. Humanistic psychology instead focused on topics such as:  Becoming a fully functioning person: A person who is in touch with their innermost desires and trusts their own instincts.  Individual free will: The capacity that individuals have to make choices, select courses of action, and control their own lives  Hierarchy of needs: A theory introduced by Maslow suggesting that people were motivated by a series of increasingly complex needs, starting with their basic physiological needs up to the need to achieve an individual's full potential  Peak experiences: Moments of pure, transcendent joy that play an important part in the reaching self-actualization.  Self-actualization: A state of reaching one's full potential Maslow theorized that all people are motivated to fulfill a hierarchy of needs.  At the bottom of the hierarchy are basic physiological needs, such as hunger, thirst, and sleep.  Further up the hierarchy are needs for safety and security, needs for belonging and love, and esteem-related needs for status and achievement.  Once these needs are met, Maslow believed, people strive for selfactualization, the ultimate state of personal fulfillment.  As Maslow put it, “A musician must make music, an artist must paint, a poet must write, if he is ultimately to be at peace with himself. What a man can be, he must be.” 39  Helped to create Humanistic Psychology  Stressed the study of conscious experience and an individual’s free will  Healthy individuals strive to reach their potential. 40 Cognitive psychology is the school of psychology that studies mental processes, including how people think, perceive, remember and learn. As part of the larger field of cognitive science, this branch of psychology is related to other disciplines such as neuroscience, philosophy, and linguistics. This shift in emphasis toward cognition had such a profound influence on psychology that it has often been called the cognitive revolution (as a wealth of research on information processing, language, memory, and perception began to emerge). Cognitive psychology emerged during the 1950s, partly as a response to behaviorism. Critics of behaviorism noted that it failed to account for how internal processes impacted behavior. One reason for psychologists’ renewed interest in mental processes was the invention of the computer, which provided an intriguing metaphor for the human mind. The hardware of the computer was likened to the brain, and computer programs provided a step-by-step model of how information from the environment is input, stored, and retrieved to produce a response. Based on the computer metaphor, psychologists began to formulate information-processing models of human thought and behavior. 41  Cognitive psychology believes that behaviors are performed because of ideas and thoughts. Examples of theories that grew out of the cognitive school of thought include:  Stages of cognitive development: A theory proposed by Jean Piaget, which suggested that children go through a series of progressive stages of intellectual development.  Sociocultural theory: This theory, introduced by Lev Vygotsky, looked at how the interaction of cultural and social factors contributed to cognitive development.  Informational processing theory: This theory suggests that the mind functions much like a computer to process and interpret information about the world.  Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) was also heavily influenced by this psychological perspective. CBT is an approach to treatment that focuses on how automatic negative thought patterns influence behavior and psychological problems.  Biopsychology is a subfield of psychology emphasizes the integration of human biology and psychology (body and mind together).  How biological factors affect mental processes and how the brain effects behavior.  This means considering:  How the body functions physiologically and neurologically  How our mind and body operate together in sensation and perception, and responding to stimuli in the world around us  How human cognition and reaction might be caused by effects of our genes, hormones, and neurotransmitters in the brain or a combo of all three. If you could not remember the names of your parents and went to psychologist who adheres to the biological perspective, what might they say?  Contemporary psychology is interested in an enormous range of topics, looking at human behavior and mental process from the neural level to the cultural level.  Psychologists study human issues that begin before birth and continue until death.  By understanding the history of psychology, you can gain a better understanding of how these topics are studied and what we have learned thus far. 44  Developmental  Personality Psychology  Clinical Psychology  Social Psychology  Experimental Psychology  Counseling Psychology  Educational and School Psychology  Physiological Psychology  Cognitive Psychology  Industrial and Organizational Psychology  Developmental: Looks at human development across the life span. Developmental psychology once focused primarily on child development but today devotes a great deal of research to adolescence, adulthood, and old age.  Social: Focuses on interpersonal behavior and the role of social forces in governing behavior. Typical topics include attitude formation, attitude change, prejudice, conformity, attraction, aggression, intimate relationships, and behavior in groups.  Experimental: Encompasses the traditional core of topics such as sensation, perception, learning, conditioning, motivation and emotion.  Physiological: Examines the influence of genetic factors on behavior and the role of the brain, nervous system, endocrine system, and bodily chemicals in the regulation of behavior.  Cognitive: Focuses on “higher” mental processes such as memory, reasoning, information processing, language, problem solving, decision making, and creativity.  Personality: Interested in describing and understanding individuals’ consistency in behavior, which represents their personality. This area is interested in factors that shape personality and with personality assessment.  Clinical: Concerned with evaluation, diagnosis, and treatment of individuals with psychological disorders, as well as treatment of individuals with psychological disorders, as well as treatment of less severe behavioral and emotional problems. Principal activities include interviewing clients, psychological testing, and providing group and individual psychotherapy.  Counseling: Overlaps with clinical psychology in that specialists in both areas engage in similar activities – interviewing, testing, and providing therapy. Counseling psychologists usually work with a somewhat different clientele, providing assistance to people struggling with everyday problems of moderate severity – they specialize in family, marital, or career counseling.  Educational: Work to improve curriculum design, achievement testing, teacher training, and other aspects of the educational process. School psychologists usually work in elementary or secondary schools, where they test and counsel children having difficulties in school and aid parents and teachers in solving school-related problems.  I/O (Industrial and Organizational Psychology): Perform a wide variety of tasks in the world of business and industry. These tasks include running human resources departments, working to improve staff morale and attitudes, striving to increase job satisfaction and productivity, examining organizational structures and procedures, and making recommendations for improvements. About 1/4th of American Psychologists work in colleges and universities. The remaining 3/4ths work in hospitals, clinics, police departments, research institutes, government agencies, business and industry, schools, nursing homes, counseling centers, and private practice.