Theories of Motivation and Emotion: A Comparative Overview

MOTIVATION AND EMOTION 1 Importance of motivation Most motivation theorists assume that motivation is involved in the performance of all learned responses; that is, a learned behavior will not occur unless it is energized. 6 Motivation • Intrinsic Motivation – desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective. • Extrinsic Motivation – desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment 7 Rewards Affect Motivation Examples: Mom: “I’ll give you $5 for every A.’’ Child: “As long as she pays, I’ll study.’’ Extrinsic motivation Mom: “Your grades were great! Let’s celebrate by going out for dinner.’’ Child: “I love doing well.’’ Intrinsic motivation 8 Theories of motivation Behavioral: Classical conditioning states that biological responses to associated stimuli energize and direct behavior. Operant learning states the primary factor is consequences: the application of reinforcers provides incentives to increase behavior; the application of punishers decrease behavior. 9 expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964 ) which proposes the following equation: Motivation = Perceived Probability of Success (Expectancy) * Connection of Success and Reward (Instrumentality) * Value of Obtaining Goal (Value) Since this formula states that the three factors of Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Value are to be multiplied by each other, a low value in one will result in a low value of motivation. Therefore, all three must be present in order for motivation to occur. 10 Vroom's (Expectancy) Theory of Motivation 11 Con. That is, if an individual doesn't believe he or she can be successful at a task OR the individual does not see a connection between his or her activity and success OR the individual does not value the results of success, then the probability is lowered that the individual will engage in the required learning activity. From the perspective of this theory, all three variables must be. 12 Psychoanalytic theories Freud (1890) suggested that all action or behavior is a result of internal, biological instincts that are classified into two categories: life (sexual) and death (aggression). 13 Humanistic Theories One of the most influential writers in the area of motivation is Abraham Maslow (1954). He attempted to synthesize a large body of research related to human motivation. Maslow posited a hierarchy of human needs based on two groupings: deficiency needs and growth needs. Within the deficiency needs, each lower need must be met before moving to the next higher level. Once each of these needs has been satisfied, if at some future time a deficiency is detected, the individual will act to remove the deficiency. 14 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Self-actualization needs Need to live up to one’s fullest and unique potential Esteem needs Need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independence; need for recognition and respect from others Belongingness and love needs Need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and alienation Safety needs Need to feel that the world is organized and predictable; need to feel safe, secure, and stable Physiological needs Psychology Spring Need 2009 to satisfy hunger and thirst  begins at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied  then higher-level safety needs become active  then psychological needs become active 15 Social Learning Social learning (or observational) theory suggests that modeling (imitating others) and vicarious learning (watching others have consequences applied to their behavior) are important motivators of behavior. 16 Emotion What is emotion? Emotions are psychological feelings, usually accompanied by physiological reactions to stimuli. The stimuli that lead to these responses may come from inside our bodies (e.g., the pain of a stubbed tune), from inside our minds, or from our environments. The mainstream definition of emotion refers to a feeling state involving thoughts, physiological changes, and an outward expression or behavior. But what comes first? The thought? The physiological arousal? The behavior? There some theories which attempt to understand why we experience emotion. 17 James-Lange Theory The James-Lange theory of emotion argues that an event causes physiological arousal first and then we interpret this arousal. Only after our interpretation of the arousal can we experience emotion. If the arousal is not noticed or is not given any thought, then we will not experience any emotion based on this event. EXAMPLE: You are walking down a dark alley late at night. You hear footsteps behind you and you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens. You notice these physiological changes and interpret them as your body's preparation for a fearful situation. You then experience fear. 18 James-Lange Theory of Emotion  Experience of emotion is awareness of physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli Sight of oncoming car (perception of stimulus) Pounding heart (arousal) Fear (emotion) 19 Cannon-Bard Theory Sight of oncoming car (perception of stimulus) Pounding heart (arousal) The Cannon-Bard theory argues that we experience physiological arousal and emotional at the same time, but gives no attention to the role of thoughts or outward behavior. Fear (emotion) 20 Cannon-Bard Theory EXAMPLE: You are walking down a dark alley late at night. You hear footsteps behind you and you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens. At the same time as these physiological changes occur you also experience the emotion of fear. 21 Schachter’s Two-Factor Theory of Emotion Sight of oncoming car (perception of stimulus) Pounding heart (arousal) Cognitive label Fear (emotion) According to this theory, an event causes physiological arousal first. You must then identify a reason for this arousal and then you are able to experience and label the emotion. “I’m afraid” 22 Schachter’s Two-Factor Theory of Emotion EXAMPLE: You are walking down a dark alley late at night. You hear footsteps behind you and you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens. Upon noticing this arousal you realize that is comes from the fact that you are walking down a dark alley by yourself. This behavior is dangerous and therefore you feel the emotion of fear. 23 Lazarus Theory Lazarus Theory states that a thought must come before any emotion or physiological arousal. In other words, you must first think about your situation before you can experience an emotion. EXAMPLE: You are walking down a dark alley late at night. You hear footsteps behind you and you think it may be a mugger so you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and . your breathing deepens and at the same time experience fear 24 Facial Feedback Theory According to the facial feedback theory, emotion is the experience of changes in our facial muscles. In other words, when we smile, we then experience pleasure, or happiness. When we frown, we then experience sadness. it is the changes in our facial muscles that cue our brains and provide the basis of our emotions. EXAMPLE: You are walking down a dark alley late at night. You hear footsteps behind you and your eyes widen, your teeth clench and your brain interprets these facial changes as the expression of fear. Therefore you experience the emotion of fear. 25 Facial changes 26