Module 7 Problem Solving

Cognitive Psychology Notes Module 7: Problem Solving Problem solving  1. It is purposeful → The ‘solution’  2. It involves controlled processes  3. A problem exists when appropriate knowledge is lacking Well-defined vs. ill-defined problems  Well-defined problems o Specified: (1) initial state/situation, (2) range of moves/strategies, and (3) the goal/solution  E.g. chess, maze  Ill-defined problems o Underspecified: Need to form plan to impose structure o How best to proceed is not immediately obvious o Most everyday problems are ill-defined Knowledge-Rich vs. Knowledge-Lean Problems:  Knowledge-Rich: Requires expertise (e.g., doctors).  Knowledge-Lean: No special expertise needed. Insight in Problem Solving:  Insight: Sudden realization of a solution (the “aha” moment).  Reorganization: Changes mental representation of the problem.  Debate: Is insight a unique process or part of normal thinking? Impasse:  Impasse: Feeling stuck before finding a solution.  Question: Why do we get stuck before gaining insight? Representational change theory Ohlsson (1992)  Impasse = problem represented incorrectly  Change representation: o 1. elaboration o 2. Constraint relaxation o 3. Re-encoding Representational change theory Öllinger et al. (2014)  Prior knowledge and perceptions  problem representation  search  can’t find a solution  block or impasse  representational change  new search  problem representation Brain Activity During Insight (Bowden et al., 2005):  Insight activates the right hemisphere, especially the anterior superior temporal gyrus.  Helps integrate distant associations. Strategies for Problem Solving:  Heuristics: Simple rules for problem-solving. o Means-Ends Analysis:  Identify differences between current and goal states.  Set subgoals. o Hill Climbing Heuristic: Gradually move closer to the goal.  Analogical Problem Solving: o Use solutions from similar problems to solve new ones (e.g., using past experiences). Types of Similarity in Problems (Chen, 2002):  Superficial Similarity: Same objects, unrelated solutions.  Structural Similarity: Shared causal relationships.  Procedural Similarity: Similar solution methods. Example Problems:  Tumour Problem (Gick & Holyoak, 1980): o Use rays to treat a tumor without harming healthy tissue.  Fortress Problem (Gick & Holyoak, 1980):  Cognition in analogical reasoning  intelligence o Working memory (Morrison et al., 2001)  Verbal and Figural analogies  Verbal WM task; Visual WM task; Control  Problem solving impaired when WM engaged  Verbal analogies impaired with verbal WM task (phonological loop)  Figural analogies impaired with visual WM task (visuospatial sketchpad)  Analogical reasoning o Allows us to experience the interconnectedness of ideas o Great way to learn difficult concepts more effectively o Is a skill – we get better at it with practice o Enhances creative output Chess Expertise:  Practice: 10,000 hours to become an expert.  Chunking: Experts remember board positions better  Long-term memory  DeGroot (1965) o Briefly present board positions to expert and nonexpert players and then removed the board and asked participants to reconstruct the moves o Chess masters 91% accurate vs. non-experts 43%  Gobet’s Template theory – Template structure: o Chess experts use fixed and variable information for strategies. 3 templates – some large Superior template knowledge more important than strategy Precise board location of pieces stored Better recall of random chess positions  Charness et al. (2001): Tactically relevant eye gaze in first second: o Experts - 80% of time, Novice – 64% of time 10-Year Rule  Elite performance requires over 10 years of practice (Ericsson et al., 1993).  Some individuals excel despite similar practice levels. Problem-solving tasks  Nine-Dot Problem: Requires insight to find a solution.  Nine Pigs Problem: Similar to the nine-dot problem in requiring restructuring of thought.  Tower of Hanoi: A non-insight problem solvable through sequential steps.    