Module 2 Memory 1

Cognitive Psychology Notes Module 2: Memory 1 Memory and Forgetting  Memory helps us recall events, people, and our sense of self.  It involves a series of actions and processes.  4 Main Factors influencing memory: o Events o Participants o Encoding (how information is stored) o Retrieval (how information is recalled) Stages of Memory 1. Encoding: Transforming info into a format that can be stored in the brain. 2. Consolidation: Making biological connections to past knowledge. 3. Storage: Keeping information over time. 4. Retrieval: Accessing stored information. Failure to retrieve leads to forgetting. Multi-Store Model of Memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)  Sensory Stores: o Processes initial information. o Iconic memory (visual): lasts ~1 second. o Echoic memory (auditory): lasts ~2 seconds.  Short-Term Memory: o Holds about 7±2 items (Miller, 1956) or 4 “chunks” (Cowan, 2000). o Information can be lost if new items replace old ones.  Long-Term Memory: o Requires consolidation and rehearsal. o Has unlimited capacity but can decay over time.  Strengths: o Evidence shows different stores for short-term and long-term memory. o Real-life evidence from brain-damaged patients.  Weaknesses: o Not all information is stored through rehearsal. o Over-simplifies memory (e.g., working memory is more complex). Working memory Short-term memory used in many complex tasks that aren’t explicitly memory tasks  Short-term memory replaced by working memory (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974) o Working memory = short-term storage + processing  Working memory “refers to a system, or a set of processes, holding mental representations temporarily available for us in thought and action” Working Memory (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974)  Working Memory combines short-term storage and processing.  Components: o Phonological Loop: Stores and processes auditory information. o Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad: Handles visual and spatial information. o Central Executive: Manages and processes information from other components. o Episodic Buffer: Integrates visual, auditory, and long-term memory  Central executive - Working Memory Model Baddeley & Hitch (1974)  Allows you to do things with info you have stored from phonological loop, episodic buffer or visuo-spatial sketchpad  The brain’s workbench  Predicts many other abilities (e.g., fluid intelligence, school grades, ability to learn new languages, attention control)  Made up of many different abilities that are all related to a core “executive functioning” ability: o Memory updating o shifting o inhibition Craik and Tulving (1975) As processing became deeper, memory increased Limitation: Circular logic (Deep processing = Better memory and Better memory = Deep processing) Levels of Processing Theory Craik & Lockhart (1972)  Helped identify elaboration and distinctiveness of processing as factors influencing long-term memory  Elaboration: amount of processing of a given type influences LTM (Craik & Tulving, 1975)  Distinctiveness:  Memory traces different from other memory traces  Enhances memory performance by facilitating retrieval (Chee & Goh, 2018) Testing Effect  Practicing retrieval (e.g., self-testing) leads to better long-term memory.  Feedback and repetition can improve learning outcomes. Aboriginal Memorisation Technique (Reser et al., 2021)  Memory Palace: Attach items to locations in your mind.   Aboriginal Technique: Adds storytelling for deeper engagement and better memory. Forgetting Curve (Ebbinghaus, 1885/1913)  Most information is lost quickly if not well-consolidated.  Some info, once forgotten, can be re-learned faster the second time theory  Failure of retrieval – something interfering with what you want to remember  Memory impaired by two forms of interference.  Repression (Sigmund and Anna Freud)  The idea that traumatic memories are hidden but can resurface.  Experts now believe many "recovered memories" might be false Decay vs. Failure to retrieve  Decay: Memories fade over time if not revisited.  Failure to Retrieve: Memories can be hard to access due to interference or lack of rehearsal.