Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology Homeostasis and Reasoning

Unit 1 Review: Hypothesis: a tentative answer to a question (can be disproven but never 100% proven) Theory: an explanation for a great diversity of observations/supported by a lot of evidence Experiment: procedure taken to test a hypothesis. Variable: the “thing” being tested in the experiment Experimental Group: the group being manipulated during the experiment Control: the variable left unchanged in the experiment Scientific Method: Observations->Question->Hypothesis->Experiment->Collect Data>Conclusion OR Revise Hypothesis UNIT 2 Anatomy: The study of the structure of an organism Physiology: The study of the functions an organism’s parts perform Homeostasis: Maintaining a stable internal environment, even when the external environment changes. Feedback Mechanism: Last step affects the first step of a series. A “loop” either responds with negative or positive feedback. Negative Feedback: Last step of the last series stops or slows the first step of the series. It is the most common type of feedback. An accumulation of an end product slows the process that produces the product. (Ex: Rude waiter-> customer angry -> no tip -----waiter stops being rude) Positive Feedback: Last step of the series increases an earlier step of a series. Intensifies the condition. (Ex: Waiter Is Polite -> customer is happy -> large tip------waiter becomes even nicer) Cell: Basic unit of living matter separated from it’s environment by a plasma membrane, the fundamental structural unit of life. Tissue: An integrated group of cells with a common function, structure or both. Organ: A specialized structure composed of several different types of tissues that together perform specific functions. System: A group of organs working together to perform a certain function in the body. Organism: An individual living thing, such as a bacterium, fungus, protist, plant, or animal. Inductive Vs Deductive Reasoning: ● Inductive reasoning draws general principles/facts from a set of observations. ● Deductive reasoning uses established facts to make specific statements from observations. Discovery Vs Hypothesis-Driven: ● Discovery science uses verifiable observations and measurements and relies on inductive reasoning.It’s used for getting information/facts about something. ● Hypothesis-Driven science is the process of the scientific method and uses it to find explanations for observations. It's used to solve/prove questions and hypothesis. Anatomy & Physiology: ● Anatomy is the study of the structure of an organism. ● Physiology is the study of the functions of an organism’s parts perform. ● Structure determines Function! Homeostasis: Maintaining a stable internal environment (narrow range) even when the external environment changes (large range) ● External Environment (temp/humidity/ph/etc) vs Internal Environment (% of blood,salt,etc) Your overall body can tolerate extreme changes in external environment but your cells can only tolerate a narrow window of changes in the internal environment. ● All living things must maintain the homeostasis specific to them. ● Homeostasis= the changes in external environment + body’s response ● The Body must be able to constantly: check the changes in environment and react to changes to get back to normal. Feedback Mechanisms: ● a loop system in which the system replies in either the same direction (positive feedback) or in the opposite direction (negative feedback) It helps maintain homeostasis to ensure everything in the body is where it should be. ● Negative Feedback: Last step slows/stops the first step of the series ● Positive Feedback: Last step increase and earlier step of the series, and intensifies the condition. ● Example: If body temp starts to drop, negative feedback occurs, the body begins to shiver and skin tightens to stay warm. Levels of Organization: Cell -> Tissue -> Organ -> System -> Organism ● Cell: basic unit of living separated from its environment by plasma membrane, the fundamental structure of life ● Tissue: An integrated group of cells that share a common structure and/or function. ● Organ: A specialized structure composed of several different types of tissues that together perform specific functions. ● System: Groups of two or more tissues that work together. 11 systems in total. ● Organism: An entire living thing that can carry out all basic life processes Types of Tissue: ● Muscular: 3 types: skeletal/smooth/cardiac. Keeps the body upright & allows it to move. Helps push blood throughout the body. ● Nervous: made of neurons & glia. Senses stimuli, external & internal cues, and transmits that information to other systems. ● Connective: “cells suspended in matrix” Supports and connects the other tissues. Most abundant tissue in body. Eg: bone/blood/body fat ● Epithelial: “tightly packed sheets of cells.” Covers the body surface and lining for most internal cavities. Functions: protection, absorption, secretion, and filtration. ● Systems of the Human Body System Integumentary Function Protection Skeletal 1)Protection 2) Support 3)Movement 4)Blood Production Muscular Movement Sample Organs Skin Bones/Cartilage Muscles Digestive 1)Ingestion of food 2)breakdown of food Mouth / esophagus / stomach small intestine / large intestine / liver Circulatory 1) Transport of substances throughout body 2) Heat Heart / Blood / Blood Vessels / Lymph Vessels Respiratory 1) Bring oxygen into the body 2) Remove carbon dioxide from the body Nose / Trachea / Bronchi / Lungs Excretory 1)Removal of metabolic wastes from the body 2)Maintain H2O balance Kidney / Bladder / Urethra Immune Defense Against foreign pathogens Nervous 1)Coordinate body activities 2)Overall maintenance of homeostasis Brain / Nerves / Spinal Cord Endocrine 1)Coordinate Body Activities 2)Overall maintenance of homeostasis Adrenal Gland / Pituitary Gland / Pancreas Reproductive Production of new individuals White Blood Cells/ Lymph Nodes Ovary / uterus / testes Digestive System: Polypeptide: A polymer chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. Ingestion: the act of eating, the first stage of food processing Digestion: the mechanical/chemical breakdown of food into molecules small enough for the body to absorb. Second stage of food processing. Absorption: The uptake of small nutrient molecules by the body, third main stage of food processing. Elimination: The passing of undigested material out of the digestive compartment, fourth stage of food processing. Alimentary Canal: complete digestive tract consisting of a tube running from mouth to anus. Gastric Sphincter: prevent food from going back to the esophagus and regulate the passage of food into small intestine. Salivary Amylase Peptidase Lipase Maltase Bile Mouth: synonymous with oral cavity Teeth Pharynx: muscle that allows you to swallow. Epiglottis: flap that covers the larynx (voice box), prevents food from entering the respiratory tract. Esophagus: a muscular tube that conducts food by peristalsis usually from the pharynx to the stomach. No digestion takes place here. Moves food from the mouth to the stomach. Stomach Small Intestine Large Intestine Appendix Rectum Anus Why do we need a digestive system in order to live? ● Release energy from nutrients, which allows cells/body to perform all of life’s functions) ● Release building blocks to build cells/body parts Digestion Key Ideas ● Breakdown is physical and chemical ● Digestion occurs in specialized compartments (structure determines function) ● Increase of Surface Area Carbohydrates: ● Functions: Energy Storage & structure ● Examples: Glucose (simple sugar), sucrose (table sugar), starch ● Building Blocks: Monosaccharides, Disaccharide, Polysaccharide Lipids: ● Functions: energy storage, cell membrane structure, insulation, cushioning ● Examples: Oils/Fats/Waxes ● Building Blocks: 3 Fatty Acids + Glycerol Proteins Type Of Protein Function Antibodies Immune Defense Enzymes Control Chemical Reactions Transport Proteins Hormones Move materials from one part of body/cell to another Cellular Communications Example IgG, IgE Pepsin, Lactase Hemoglobin Insulin, Adrenaline, Thyroxine Structural Proteins Support Collagen Contractile Proteins Movement Actin, Myosin Neurotransmitters Nerve Cell Impulse Transmission Serotonin ● Building Blocks: Amino Acids Monosaccharides Vs Disaccharides Vs Polysaccharides: Monosaccharides are simple sugars, they consist of one unit. Disaccharides are groups of sugars composed of 2 monosaccharides linked together. Polysaccharides are complex carbs, combine of numerous monosaccharides. Mechanical/Physical Digestion Vs Chemical Digestion: ● Mechanical/Physical: breaking into smaller sized pieces. Increases surface area. Any chemical properties remain the same. (cracker still a cracker even though broken down) ● Chemical: breaking into simpler molecules. Uses enzymes. Chemical properties are changed. Peristalsis: rhythmic contractions of the digestive system muscles that push food mass through the digestive tract. Allows you to process and digest food, even when lying down. Hydrochloric Acid: activates the enzymes of pepsin and chymotrypsin Pepsin: starts the breakdown of proteins into smaller polypeptides. Mucus: protects the stomach lining from the acid and digestion taking place. Small Intestine: 1)Complete digestion of nutrients into building blocks. 2) absorb building blocks into bloodstream. Villi: small, finger-like, projections lining the inner wall of the small intestine. Greatly increases the surface area, and allows more of the nutrients to be absorbed. (Building Blocks into bloodstream) Gland: Accessory Glands are organs that are important for digestion, but don’t contact the food directly. They consist of: salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and the pancreas. The alimentary canal allows food to pass through. ● Liver: makes bile, stores cholesterol & glycogen, detoxifies blood, removes dead RBCS ● Pancreas: secretes enzymes into small intestine. Secretes insulin & glucagon, which regulate blood sugar levels ● Salivary Glands secrete saliva and makes the enzyme amylase. ● Gallbladder: Stores Bile Circulatory System: Why do you need a circulatory system in order to live? In order to transport materials like nutrients, water, and oxygen, to all parts of the body. What are the 3 parts of the human circulatory system and their functions? ● Blood: 1)Liquid medium that transports dissolved nutrients, wastes, gases, etc throughout body. 2) Regulates Heat 3) Provides immunity. ● Heart: Pumps blood throughout the body. ● Blood Vessels: Tubes for blood to travel through Parts Of The Blood: ● Plasma: Liquid portion of the blood. Regulates heat & Keeps the blood’s ph @ 7.4 Made up of 90% water. It's clear/yellow. Contains dissolved nutrients/wastes/proteins/salts/etc. ● Red Blood Cells: Erythrocytes. Transport oxygen & CO2 to/from all cells in the body. 25 trillion RBCs in an adult. Contain hemoglobin. (iron + protein) Picks up O2 in the lungs (are with lots of o2) and loses O2 in areas that are low in it. Has Biconcave sphere structure. Die at a rate of 2 million/second. Circulate for 3-4 months. ● White Blood Cells: Leukocytes. Immune defense against viruses, bacteria, etc. Some WBCS make antibodies. WBCS have a nucleus and are less abundant than RBCs unless an infection is present. Platelets: irregularly shaped cell fragments. Responsible for the formation of blood clots. They trigger activation of a cascade of series of blood proteins, with the final step of the clot formation. Hemoglobin: Hem-Iron/Globin-Protein. Readily binds to O2. Picks up O2 in the lungs where its abundant, and losses in areas that are low in oxygen. Blood Vessels: ● ARTeries: carries the blood away from the heart. Usually carries oxygenated blood. Made of thick muscular walls that are elastic and branch repeatedly. Aorta, the largest artery and Arterioles, the smallest artery. ● Capillaries: site where the materials cross from bloodstream into interstitial fluid that battles cells. Very narrow and thin, only one cell thick. Only one RBC can pass through at a time. Materials move from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration. ● Veins: Carry blood towards the heart. Usually carries deoxygenated blood. Has thinner walls than arteries. Venule=smallest veins. Muscle contractions compress veins and push blood through them. Valves ensure that blood can’t flow back. ● Lymphatic Vessels: “dead end” body tissue at one end and drain into veins at the other end. Carries lymph (similar to interstitial fluid). Returns fluid from cells back into circulatory system. Fights infections. Systemic & Pulmonary Circulation: Pulmonary is between the heart and lungs while systemic is between the heart and everything else. Branches of Systemic System: ● Hepatic-Portal: between the heart and digestive system. Adds nutrients to the blood ● Renal: between the heart and the kidney. Removes waste from the blood. ● Coronary: between the heart and blood vessels that supply heart w/ nutrients. ● LDLs and HDLs: ● Low Density Lipoproteins “bad cholesterol”, associated with depositing of cholesterol in arterial plaque which can lead to increased risk of cardiovascular disease. ● High Density Lipoproteins “good cholesterol” decrease the risk of blockage, because they convey cholesterol to the liver to be broken down. Circulatory System = Common Denominator: transports nutrients/materials that are essential for the function of other systems, that they aren’t able to transport on their own. ● Respiratory System: the circulatory system brings O2 too and from the respiratory system in order to maintain homeostasis ● Digestive System: the circulatory helps break down food by transporting food to the digestive tract ● Endocrine System: transport hormones throughout the body. Disease Anemia Problem Too few RBCS Symptoms Prevention/Treatment Lack of Energy -Iron supplments (they’ll raise hemoglobin) Sickle-Cell Anemia Abnormal hemoglobin crystallizes causing RBCs to become sickle shaped -Physical weakness -Heart failure -pain & fever -brain damage Hemophilia Missing Protein in clotting cascade Excessive bleeding Varicose Veins Blood Pools by valves -veins appear close to the surface -can be painful -Bone marrow transplant -drugs to increase production to fetal hemoglobin Blood transfusions -surgery to remove the Parts Of The Alimentary Canal: Mouth: aka, the oral cavity. It moistens the food. Teeth physically break down food into smaller pieces. It increases surface area, allowing for more enzymes to work. Amylase breaks down the carbs. Polysaccharides turn into disaccharides during this stage. Esophagus: no digestion takes place here. It moves the food from the mouth to the stomach. Peristalsis takes place to push food through the digestive tract. ● Pharynx: muscle that allows you to swallow ● Epiglottis: flap that covers the larynx and prevents food from entering the respiratory tract ● Uvula: flips up to close off the nasal passages when you swallow. Stomach: Bag that stores food. Chemically digests large polypeptides into smaller polypeptides. Enzymes pepsin and chymotrypsin, require HCL acid to activate. Thick mucus layer protects the stomach lining here. Sphincters prevent food from going back to esophagus and regulate passage of food into small intestine. Small Intestine: Complete digestion of nutrients into building blocks. Absorb the building blocks into the bloodstream. Disaccharides become monosaccharides. Small polypeptides become amino acids, and lipids are broken down. The structure is very long and covered in villi. Large Intestine: Reabsorption of water. E Coli bacteria produce vitamins. Very long and wide structure. Rectum: stores waste until its ready to be removed. Anus: opening to the outside. Accessory Glands: Salivary Glands: makes saliva, makes the enzyme amylase Liver: makes bile, stores cholesterol, stores glycogen, detoxifies blood, removes dead RBCS Gallbladder: stores bile Pancreas: secretes enzymes into the small intestine. Insulin & glucagon, that regulate blood sugar levels. Disease What Happens? Obesity -fat is based on adipose cells. Body stores extra energy as glycogen. If calorie intake drops, body slows down metabolism -decrease calorie intake -increase exercise rate to raise metabolic rate -replacement of fat with muscle -gastric bypass surgery Acid Reflux (Heartburn) GERD -stomach acid comes into contact with unprotected esophagus -acid irritates/burns the lining of the esophagus -antacids -shut down acid pumps Ulcer -mucus lining is too thin or there is an increase of acid produced -acid burns a hole in the stomach lining -connection to helicobacter pylori -antacids -antibiotics Lactose Intolerance -body doesnt produce enyzme, lactase, that breask down lactose innto glcose and galactose -lactose is not abosrbed by the villi -lactose passes to large intestine -bacteria in the large intestine How is it prevented/treated? -avoid/limit dairy -pills containing lactase digest the lactose and produce gas as a byproduct Diarrhea -large intestine doesn’t remove enough water -too much water remains in the feces -can result in dehydration -drink fluids with electrolytes -abosrbant materials -anti-spasmodic Rx drugs -slows spasms and keeps feces in large intestine longer so more water can be removed. Constipation -large intestine removes too much water -not enough water remains in the feces -drink more fluids -fiber (increases peristaltic movement, so feces come out quicker) Colon Cancer Colon cells become cancerous -high fiber diet -colonoscopy surgery/chemotherapy/radiati on Appendicitis -Food gets trapped in the appendix -The appendix becomes inflammed and can burst -surgery (appendectomy) Hemmorrhoids -veins around the lower rectum or anus are swollen and inflammed -warm bath for comfort -stool softener -application of hemmorrodial cream Disease Problem Symptoms Prevention/Treatment Anemia Too few RBCs Lack of energy -iron supplements (raises hemoglobin) Sickle-Cell Anemia Abnormal hemoglobin crystallizes causing RBCs to become sickle-shaped -Physical weakness -heart failure -pain/fever -brain damage -spleen damage -bone marrow transplant -drugs to increase production to fetal hemoglobin Hemophilia Varicose veings Hypertesnion (High Blood Pressure) -Atherosclerosis Missing protein in clotting cascade Excesive bleeding Blood pools by valvse -veins appear to be closer to surface. -can be painful -excessive fluid puts pressure on blood vessels -heat workds harder -fat/cholestorl accumulates and causes plaques in arteries -plaques reduce blood flow -hardening of the artery Blood transfusions -surgery to remove or foricibly scare veins None “silent killer” -increases the risk of heart attack or stroke -low sodium diet -drugs inceare the ability of the body to get rid of sodium and fluids -drugs to dialte blood vessels -none(until the beginning of heart attack/stroke) -low fat/cholestorl diet -statin (cholestorl lowering drug) -ballon angioplasty -stents Embolism/Thombosis -blood clot forms in blood vessels -blood flow blocked -clot can travel to other parts of the body and block blood flow there -can be painful stroke -lack of blood flow to the brain -leads to death of the brain tissue -depends on area of brain affected -frequently: loss of control of movement slurred speech, eyelid drooping, vision difficluties -immedieta: depends on cause...usually involves blood thinners -long term physical therapy: regain normal function -fatgue -abnormal bruising -chemo Leukemia/Lymphoma Aneursym Cancers of the blood Leukima: orgiantes in bone marrow Lymphoma: orginates in lymph system -Atery “bulges” and can eventually burst -rare if any symptons -blood thinners -aspirin improves blood low by reducing stickeness of platelets -regular aspiring use helps prevent clots from forming as readily and helps to keep arteries open. -surgery to repair damage. -often caused by high blood pressure Heart Attack Lack of blood flow in coroanry arteries leads to death of heart muscle -treat high blood pressure Chest pain that radiates down the arm Shortness of breath Heartburn senstaion Varies depedning on cause of lack of blood -anti inflammatory meds.