Rapport Labeling Cycle

In the presence of 2,3-Bisphosphoglycerate (2,3-BPG), the affinity of Hb for oxygen decreases. This is because 2,3-BPG binds to the deoxy form of Hb, stabilizing it. In the presence of 4 H+, Hb releases oxygen more readily. This is because 4 H+ ions bind to deoxy Hb, stabilizing it. **Glucose** ↓ Glucose-6-Phosphate ↓ Fructose-6-Phosphate ↓ Fructose-1,6-Bisphosphate ↓ Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate + Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate ↓ 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate ↓ 3-Phosphoglycerate ↓ 2-Phosphoglycerate ↓ Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) ↓ Pyruvate **Pyruvate is converted to Acetyl CoA** Acetyl CoA enters the Citric Acid Cycle. **Citric Acid Cycle:** Acetyl CoA + Oxaloacetate → Citrate Citrate → Isocitrate → α-Ketoglutarate → Succinyl CoA → Succinate → Fumarate → Malate → Oxaloacetate **Net Products:** 2 CO₂ 3 NADH + H⁺ 1 FADH₂ 1 GTP **Citric Acid Cycle / Krebs Cycle** * It is also called as TCA cycle (Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle) because of the presence of three -COOH groups in citric acid. * **Definition:** TCA cycle is a crucial common metabolic pathway for the oxidation of acetyl CoA obtained from carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins to CO₂, H₂O, and energy. * **Site:** Mitochondria * This reaction occurs in the cells. Respiration is a process of exchange of gases between the organism and its environment. **Types of Respiration:** 1. **Aerobic Respiration** * It involves the breakdown of glucose in the presence of oxygen to release energy in the form of ATP. * The process involves glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and electron transport chain. * The end products are carbon dioxide and water. * It is a more efficient process than anaerobic respiration. 2. **Anaerobic Respiration** * It involves the breakdown of glucose in the absence of oxygen to release energy in the form of ATP. * The process involves glycolysis and fermentation. * The end products are lactic acid or ethanol and carbon dioxide. * It is a less efficient process than aerobic respiration. **Glycolysis** Glycolysis is the first step in both aerobic and anaerobic respiration. It involves the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate. **Krebs Cycle** The Krebs cycle is a series of chemical reactions that occur in the mitochondria. It involves the complete oxidation of pyruvate to carbon dioxide and water. **Electron Transport Chain** The electron transport chain is a series of protein complexes located in the inner mitochondrial membrane. It involves the transfer of electrons from NADH and FADH₂ to oxygen, which results in the production of ATP. **ATP** ATP is the energy currency of the cell. It is used to power cellular processes. **Factors Affecting Respiration** * **Temperature:** As the temperature increases, the rate of respiration increases. * **pH:** A decrease in pH can inhibit respiration. * **Substrate Concentration:** The rate of respiration increases with an increase in substrate concentration. * **Enzyme Concentration:** The rate of respiration increases with an increase in enzyme concentration. * **Inhibitors:** Inhibitors can slow down or stop the process of respiration. **Electron Transport Chain** The electron transport chain is a series of protein complexes located in the inner mitochondrial membrane. It involves the transfer of electrons from NADH and FADH2 to oxygen, which results in the production of ATP. **Process:** 1. **NADH and FADH2 donate electrons to the electron transport chain.** 2. **Electrons are passed down the chain, releasing energy.** 3. **This energy is used to pump protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane, creating a proton gradient.** 4. **Protons flow back through ATP synthase, generating ATP.** 5. **Oxygen accepts the final electron and combines with protons to form water.** **Diagram:** [Image of the electron transport chain with labels] * NADH and FADH2 donate electrons * Complex I, II, III, and IV * Proton pumping * ATP synthase * Oxygen as the final electron acceptor * Water formation **Key Points:** * The electron transport chain is the final stage of cellular respiration. * It is the most efficient way to produce ATP. * It is essential for life.