Enlightenment and Revolution Part 2

Lesson 2 Enlightenment Thinkers Setting the Stage The Big Idea A revolution in intellectual activity changed Europeans’ view of government and society. Why It Matters Now The various freedoms enjoyed in many countries today are a result of Enlightenment thinking. Key Terms and People Enlightenment social contract John Locke philosophe rationalism Voltaire Montesquieu Rousseau In the wake of the Scientific Revolution and the new ways of thinking it prompted, scholars and philosophers began to reevaluate old notions about other aspects of society. They sought new insight into the underlying beliefs regarding government, religion, economics, and education. Their efforts spurred the Enlightenment, a new intellectual movement that stressed reason and thought and the power of individuals to solve problems. Known also as the Age of Reason, the movement reached its height in the mid-1700s and brought great change to many aspects of Western civilization. Two Views on Government The Enlightenment started from some key ideas put forth by two English political thinkers of the 1600s, Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. Both men experienced the political turmoil of England early in that century. However, they came to very different conclusions about government and human nature. Hobbes’s Social Contract Thomas Hobbes expressed his views in a work called Leviathan (1651). The horrors of the English Civil War convinced him that all humans were naturally selfish and wicked. Without governments to keep order, Hobbes said, there would be “war . . . of every man against every man” and life would be “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, Thomas Hobbes and short.” Hobbes argued that to escape such a bleak life, people had to hand over their rights to a strong ruler. In exchange, they gained law and order. Hobbes called this agreement by which people created a government the social contract. Because people acted in their own self-interest, Hobbes said, the ruler needed total power to keep citizens under control. The best government was one that had the awesome power of a leviathan (sea monster). In Hobbes’s view, such a government was an absolute monarchy, which could impose order and demand obedience. Locke’s Natural Rights The philosopher John Locke held a different, more positive view of human nature. He believed that people could learn from experience and improve themselves. As reasonable beings, they had the natural ability to govern their own affairs and to look after the welfare of society. Locke criticized absolute monarchy and favored the idea of self-government. According to Locke, all people are born free and equal, with three natural or human rights—life, liberty, and property. The purpose of government, said Locke, is to protect these rights. If a government fails to do so, citizens have a right to overthrow it. Locke’s theory had a deep influence on modern political thinking. His belief that a government’s power comes from the consent of the people is the foundation of modern democracy. Locke’s ideas of popular sovereignty, or government by popular consent, and the right to rebel against unjust rulers helped inspire struggles for liberty in Europe and the Americas. Changing Idea: The Right to Govern Old Idea A monarch’s rule is justified by divine right. Reading Check Contrast How does Locke’s view of human nature differ from that of Hobbes? New Idea A government’s power comes from the consent of the governed. Locke’s writings also led to new theories of education in Europe. Children are born with open minds, Locke wrote, and through education they can be taught society’s important values. This type of thinking led some European rulers to issue edicts requiring young children to attend schools. Still, educational opportunities remained limited for girls or for those whose families did not belong to state churches. The Philosophes Advocate Reason The Enlightenment reached its height in France in the mid-1700s. Paris became the meeting place for people who wanted to discuss politics and share ideas. The social critics of this period in France were known as philosophes (FIHL•uh•sahfs), the French word for “philosophers.” The philosophes believed that people could apply reason to all aspects of life, just as Isaac Newton had applied reason to science. Five concepts formed the core of their beliefs: 1. Reason Enlightenment thinkers, building on ideas set forth earlier by Descartes, believed truth could be discovered through reason or logical thinking. This concept is sometimes called rationalism. 2. Nature The philosophes believed that what was natural was also good and reasonable. Enlightenment thinkers such as Locke focused on the rights that people have in their natural state as human beings in order to live in dignity. These rights cannot be taken away by any society or government. 3. Happiness The philosophes rejected the medieval notion that people should find joy in the hereafter and urged people to seek well-being on earth. 4. Progress The philosophes stressed that society and humankind could improve. 5. Liberty The philosophes called for the liberties that the English people had won in their Glorious Revolution and Bill of Rights. Vocabulary satire the use of irony, sarcasm, or wit to attack folly, vice, or stupidity William Hogarth’s painting Canvassing for Votes offers a satirical view of a corrupt British politician and his aides bribing voters ahead of an election. Voltaire Combats Intolerance Probably the most brilliant and influential of the philosophes was François Marie Arouet. Using the pen name Voltaire, he published more than 70 books of political essays, philosophy, and drama. Voltaire often used satire against his opponents. He made frequent targets of the clergy, the aristocracy, and the government. His sharp tongue made him enemies at the French court, and twice he was sent to prison. After his second jail term, Voltaire was exiled to England for more than two years. Although he made powerful enemies, Voltaire never stopped fighting for tolerance, reason, freedom of religious belief, and freedom of speech. He used his quill pen as if it were a deadly weapon in a thinker’s war against humanity’s worst enemies—intolerance, prejudice, and superstition. He summed up his staunch defense of liberty in one of his most famous quotes: “I do not agree with a word you say but will defend to the death your right to say it.” Biography Voltaire (1694–1778) Voltaire befriended several European monarchs and nobles. Among them was Prussian king Frederick II. The two men seemed like ideal companions. Both were witty and preferred to dress in shabby, rumpled clothes. Their relationship eventually soured, however. Voltaire disliked editing Frederick’s mediocre poetry, while Frederick suspected Voltaire of shady business dealings. Voltaire eventually described the Prussian king as “a nasty monkey, perfidious friend, [and] wretched poet.” Frederick in turn called Voltaire a “miser, dirty rogue, [and] coward.” While Voltaire and other writers during this period made satiric attacks with their pens, English artist William Hogarth used a paintbrush to make fun of social and political evils. In his painting Canvassing for Votes, he comments on political corruption. While the candidate flirts with the ladies on the balcony, his supporters offer a man money for his vote. Montesquieu and the Separation of Powers Another influential French writer, the Baron de Montesquieu (MAHN•tuh•skyoo), devoted himself to the study of political liberty. Montesquieu believed that Britain was the best-governed and most politically balanced country of his own day. The British king and his ministers held executive power. They carried out the laws of the state. The members of Parliament held legislative power. They made the laws. The judges of the English courts held judicial power. They interpreted the laws to see how each applied to a specific case. Montesquieu called this division of power among different branches separation of powers. Montesquieu oversimplified the British system. It did not actually separate powers this way. His idea, however, became a part of his most famous book, On the Spirit of Laws (1748). In his book, Montesquieu proposed that separation of powers would keep any individual or group from gaining total control of the government. “Power,” he wrote, “should be a check to power.” This idea later would be called checks and balances. Montesquieu’s book was admired by political leaders in the British colonies of North America. His ideas about separation of powers and checks and balances became the basis for the United States Constitution. Rousseau: Champion of Freedom A third great philosophe, Jean-Jacques Rousseau (roo•SOH), was passionately committed to individual freedom. The son of a poor Swiss watchmaker, Rousseau won recognition as a writer of essays. A strange, brilliant, and controversial figure, Rousseau strongly disagreed with other Enlightenment thinkers on many matters. Most philosophes believed that reason, science, and art would improve life for all people. Rousseau, however, argued that civilization corrupted people’s natural goodness. “Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains,” he wrote. DOCUMENT-BASED INVESTIGATION Two Views on Laws in a Democracy Both Rousseau and Montesquieu believed firmly that fair and just laws—not monarchs or unrestrained mobs—should govern society. In these quotes, Rousseau reflects on laws as part of the contract holding a democratic society together while Montesquieu sees laws as providing a necessary limitation of freedom. Analyze Historical Sources How do Rousseau and Montesquieu differ in their view of the role of laws in a democracy? Historical Source “I . . . therefore give the name ‘Republic’ to every state that is governed by laws, no matter what the form of its administration may be: for only in such a case does the public interest govern, and the res publica [republic] rank as a reality. . . . Laws are, properly speaking, only the conditions of civil association. The people, being subject to the laws, ought to be their author: the conditions of the society ought to be regulated . . . by those who come together to form it.” —Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract “It is true that in democracies the people seem to act as they please; but political liberty does not consist in an unlimited freedom. . . . We must have continually present to our minds the difference between independence and liberty. Liberty is a right of doing whatever the laws permit, and if a citizen could do what they [the laws] forbid he would be no longer possessed of liberty, because all his fellow-citizens would have the same power.” —Baron de Montesquieu, The Spirit of Laws Major Ideas of the Enlightenment Idea Thinker Impact Natural and human rights—life, liberty, property Locke Fundamental to U.S. Declaration of Independence Separation of powers Montesquieu France, United States, and Latin American nations use separation of powers in new constitutions Freedom of thought and expression Voltaire Guaranteed in U.S. Bill of Rights and French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen; European monarchs reduce or eliminate censorship Civil rights, including abolishment of torture Beccaria Guaranteed in U.S. Bill of Rights; torture outlawed or reduced in nations of Europe and the Americas Religious freedom Voltaire Guaranteed in U.S. Bill of Rights and French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen; European monarchs reduce persecution Interpret Charts 1. Analyze Issues What important documents reflect the influence of Enlightenment ideas? 2. Evaluate Concepts Which are the two most important Enlightenment ideas? Support your answer with reasons. Rousseau believed that the only good government was one that was freely formed by the people and guided by the “general will” of society—a direct democracy. Under such a government, people agree to give up some of their freedom in favor of the common good. In 1762, he explained his political philosophy in a book called The Social Contract. Rousseau’s view of the social contract differed greatly from that of Hobbes. For Hobbes, the social contract was an agreement between a society and its government. For Rousseau, it was an Jean Jacques Rousseau agreement among free individuals to create a society and a government. Like Locke, Rousseau argued that legitimate government came from the consent of the governed. However, Rousseau believed in a much broader democracy than Locke had promoted. He argued that all people were equal and that titles of nobility should be abolished. Rousseau’s ideas inspired many of the leaders of the French Revolution who overthrew the monarchy in 1789. Reading Check Form Generalizations What did all of the philosophes see as the purpose and value of reason? Beccaria Promotes Criminal Justice While Locke and Rousseau focused on natural or human rights, an Italian philosophe named Cesare Bonesana Beccaria (bayk•uh•REE•ah) wrote about people’s civil rights, the rights they deserved as citizens of a city or country. Turning his attention to the justice system, he reasoned that laws existed to preserve social order, not to avenge crimes. Beccaria regularly criticized common abuses of justice. They included torturing of witnesses and suspects, irregular proceedings in trials, and punishments that were arbitrary or cruel. He argued that a person accused of a crime should receive a speedy trial and that torture should never be used. Moreover, he said, the degree of punishment should be based on the seriousness of the crime. He also believed that capital punishment should be abolished. Beccaria based his ideas about justice and civil rights on the principle that governments should seek the greatest good for the greatest number of people. His ideas influenced criminal law reformers in Europe and North America. Lesson 2 Assessment 1. Organize Information Which impact of the Enlightenment do you consider most important and why? Use an outline to help organize your thoughts. Enlightenment in Europe I. Two Views on Government A. B. II. The Philosophes Advocate Reason A. B. 2. Key Terms and People For each key term or person in the lesson, write a sentence explaining its significance. 3. Analyze Issues Why did John Locke oppose the idea of an absolute monarch running a country’s government? 4. Draw Conclusions What did social critics such as the philosophes hope to accomplish through their writings and art? 5. Synthesize Explain how the following statement reflects Enlightenment ideas: “Power should be a check to power.” 6. Analyze Effects Why was Voltaire’s use of satire effective? 7. Draw Conclusions Do you think the philosophes were optimistic about the future of humankind? Explain. Lesson 3 The Enlightenment Spreads Setting the Stage The Big Idea Enlightenment ideas spread through the Western world and profoundly influenced the arts and government. Why It Matters Now An “enlightened” problemsolving approach to government and society prevails in modern civilization today. Key Terms and People salons baroque neoclassical Mary Wollstonecraft enlightened despot Catherine the Great The philosophes’ views about society often got them in trouble. In France, it was illegal to criticize either the Catholic Church or the government. Many philosophes landed in jail or were exiled. Voltaire, for example, experienced both punishments. Nevertheless, the Enlightenment spread throughout Europe with the help of books, magazines, and word of mouth. In time, Enlightenment ideas influenced everything from the artistic world to the royal courts across the continent. A World of Ideas In the 1700s, Paris was the cultural and intellectual capital of Europe. Young people from around Europe—and also from the Americas—came to study, philosophize, and enjoy the culture of the bustling city. The brightest minds of the age gathered there. From their circles radiated the ideas of the Enlightenment. The buzz of Enlightenment ideas was most intense in the mansions of several wealthy women of Paris. In their large drawing rooms, these hostesses held regular social gatherings called salons. At these events, philosophers, writers, artists, scientists, and other intellects met to discuss ideas. Diderot’s Encyclopedia The most influential of the salon hostesses in Voltaire’s time was Marie-Thérèse Geoffrin (zhuh•frehn). She helped finance the project of a leading philosophe named Denis Diderot (DEE•duh•roh). Diderot created a large set of books to which many leading scholars of Europe contributed articles and essays. He called it Encyclopedia and began publishing the first volumes in 1751. The Enlightenment views expressed in the articles soon angered both the French government and the Catholic Church. Their censors banned the work. They said it undermined royal authority, encouraged a spirit of revolt, and fostered “moral corruption, irreligion, and unbelief.” Nonetheless, Diderot continued publishing his Encyclopedia. Reading Check Draw Conclusions Why did the Catholic Church seek to censor the writings of Enlightenment thinkers? The salons and the Encyclopedia helped spread Enlightenment ideas to educated people all over Europe. Enlightenment ideas also eventually spread through newspapers, pamphlets, and even political songs. Enlightenment ideas about government and equality attracted the attention of a growing literate middle class, which could afford to buy many books and support the work of artists. Now and Then Online Encyclopedias These days, when people around the world want to explore new ideas and learn information about a wide range of subects, they often click onto online encyclopedias. Some online encyclopedias are free, and some charge a monthly fee to access their entries. Wikipedia is the largest and most popular online encyclopedia. Wikipedia.com first went live on January 15, 2001. Its founder established a set of rules and invited people from around the world to submit entries on subjects on which they had expertise. A large number of volunteer editors were charged with reviewing content to make sure that writers provided sources for information, tried to be accurate, and were unbiased. The site’s software keeps a log of any change made to any entry. In this way, Wikipedia tries to assure that no one tampers with entries, introduces errors, or vandalizes entries with a malicious intent. Just as the popularity of Diderot’s Encyclopedia spread throughout Europe, Wikipedia has become a worldwide source of information. As of August 2015, there were more than 3 million entries in the English-language version of Wikipedia submitted or edited by more than 10 million contributors. Wikipedia is available in more than 250 other languages as well, including American Indian languages. While many students use Wikipedia to find information for their reports in school, most teachers question whether Wikipedia entries are totally accurate and require students to confirm the information in more reliable sources, such as Britannica.com. New Artistic Styles The Enlightenment ideals of order and reason were reflected in the arts— music, literature, painting, and architecture. Neoclassical Style Emerges European art of the 1600s and early 1700s had been dominated by the style called baroque, which was characterized by a grand, ornate design. Baroque styles could be seen in elaborate palaces such as Versailles in France and in numerous paintings. Under the influence of the Enlightenment, styles began to change. Artists and architects worked in a simple and elegant style that borrowed ideas and themes from classical Greece and Rome. The main artistic style of the late 1700s is therefore called neoclassical (“new classical”). Science played an important role in this trend: neoclassical artists were inspired by archaeological discoveries about the classical world. These two buildings reflect the changes in architectural styles taking place during the Enlightenment. (Top) The Cathedral of Santa Agatha in Catania, Sicily, was designed in baroque style, with elaborate arches, marble statues, and angled panels. (Bottom) The neoclassical palace of Poland’s last king, located in Warsaw, features classical columns and flat, blank walls. Reading Check Contrast How did baroque and neoclassical architecture differ? Changes in Music and Literature Music styles also changed to reflect Enlightenment ideals. The music scene in Europe had been dominated by such composers as Johann Sebastian Bach of Germany and George Friedrich Handel of England. These artists wrote dramatic organ and choral music. During the Enlightenment, a new, lighter, and more elegant style of music known as classical emerged. Three composers in Vienna, Austria, rank among the greatest figures of the classical period in music. They were Franz Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and Ludwig van Beethoven. Writers in the 18th century also developed new styles and forms of literature. A number of European authors began writing novels, which are lengthy works of prose fiction. Their works had carefully crafted plots, used suspense, and explored characters’ thoughts and feelings. These books were popular with a wide middle-class audience who liked the entertaining stories written in everyday language. Writers, including many women, turned out a flood of popular novels in the 1700s. Samuel Richardson’s Pamela is often considered the first true English novel. It tells the story of a young servant girl who refuses the advances of her master. Another English masterpiece, Tom Jones, by Henry Fielding, tells the story of an orphan who travels all over England to win the hand of his lady.