Structuralism Psychology Notes

o Functionalism – need to analyze the PURPOSE of behavior ● APPROACHES KEY WORDS o Psychoanalytic/dynamic – unconscious, childhood o Behavioral – learned, reinforced o Humanistic – free will, choice, ideal, actualization o Cognitive – Perceptions, thoughts o Evolutionary – Genes o Biological – Brain, NTs o Sociocultural – society ● o Biopsychosocial – combo of above ● PEOPLE: o Mary Calkins: First Fem. Pres. of APA ● o Charles Darwin: Natural selection & ● evolution o Dorothea Dix: Reformed mental institutions in U.S. o Stanley Hall: 1 st pres. of APA1 st journal o William James: Father of American ● Psychology – functionalist o Wilhem Wundt: Father of Modern Psychology – structuralist o Margaret Floy Washburn –1st fem. PhD o Christine Ladd Franklin – 1 st fem. ● RANDOM TERMS ● o Basic research – purpose is to increase knowledge (rats) ● o Applied research – purpose is to help people o Psychologist – research or counseling – MS or PhD o Psychiatrist – prescribe medications and diagnose – M.D. Research Design ● EXPERIMENT : Adv: researcher controls variables to establish cause and effect Disadv: difficult to generalize o Independent Variable : purposefully altered by researcher to look for effect ▪ Experimental Group: received the treatment (part of the IV); can have multiple exp, groups ▪ Control Group: placebo, baseline (part of the IV); can only have 1 ▪ Placebo Effect: show behaviors associated with the exp. group when having received placebo o Dependent Variable: measured variable (is DEPENDENT on the independent variable) ▪ Double-Blind: Exp. where neither the participant or the experimenter are aware of which condition people are assigned to (drug studies) ▪ Single - Blind: only participant blind – used if experimenter can’t be blind (gender, age, etc) Operational Definition: clear, precise, typically quantifiable definition of your variables – allows replication Confound: error/ flaw in study Random Assignment: assigns participants to either control or experimental group at random – minimizes bias, increase chance of equal representation among groups Random Sample: method for choosing participants for your study – minimizes bias, everyone has a chance to take part o Assignment and sampling can be done via names in a hat, computer generation Representative Sample: Sample mimics the general pop. (ethnic, gender, age) CORRELATION : Adv: identify relationship between two variables Disadv: No cause and effect (CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION) o Positive Correlation – variables increase & decrease together o Negative Correlation – as one variable increases the other decreases o The stronger the # the stronger the relationship REGARDLESS of the pos/neg sign . Cannot be < or > than 1. ▪ 3 rd variable problem (lurking variable)– diff. variable is responsible for relationship (breast implants & suicide) great detail – lots of info Disadv: No cause and effect ● DESCRIPTIVE STATS: shape of the data o Measures of Central Tendency: ▪ Mean: Average (use in normal distribution) ▪ Median: Middle # (use in skewed distribution) ▪ Mode: occurs most often ● INFERENTIAL STATISTICS: establishes significance (meaningfulness) ● STATISTICAL SIGNIFANCE = results not due to chance, exp.manipulation caused the difference in means ● ETHICAL GUIDELINES (APA) o Confidentiality: names kept secret o Informed Consent: must agree to be part of study o Debriefing: must be told the true purpose of the study (done after for deception) o Deception must be warranted o No harm– mental/physical *NT = neurotransmitter, AP = action potential, NS = nervous system ● NEURON: Basic cell of the NS o Dendrites: Receive incoming signal o Soma: Cell body (includes nucleus) o Axon: AP travels down this o Myelin Sheath: speeds up AP down axon, protects axon, MS destroys this o Terminals: release NTs – send signal onto next neuron o Vesicles: sacs inside terminal contain NTs (rhymes w/?) o Synapse: gap b/w neurons ● Action Potential : movement of Na and K ions across membrane sends an electrical charge down the axon (more Na outside – like a salty banana) o All or none law : stimulus must trigger the AP past its threshold, but does not increase the intensity of the response (flush the toilet) o Refractory period : neuron must rest and reset before it can send another AP (toilet resets ● ● ● Sensory neurons – receive signals Afferent neurons – Accept signals Motor neurons – send signals Efferent neurons – signal E xits ● ● Interneurons – cells in spinal cord responsible for reflex loop ● CENTRAL NS: Brain and spinal cord ● PERIPHERAL NS: Rest of the NS o Somatic NS: Voluntary movement o Autonomic NS: Involuntary (heart, lungs, etc) ▪ Sympathetic NS: Arouses the body for fight/flight (generally activates – sympathetic to you getting eaten by a tiger helps you run away) ▪ Parasympathetic NS: established homeostasis after a sympathetic response (generally inhibits) ● NEUROTRANSMITTERS (NT): Chemicals released in synaptic gap, received by neurons o GABA: Major inhibitory NT o Glutamat E: Major E xcitatory NT (get excited when seeing your mates! o Dopamine: Reward & movement o Serotonin: Moods and emotion o Acetylcholine (ACh): Memory o Epinephrine & Norepinephrine: sympathetic NS arousal o Endorphins: pain control o Oxytocin: love and bonding ● Agonist: drug that mimics a NT ● Antagonist: drug that blocks a NT ● Reuptake: Unused NTs are taken back up into the sending neuron. SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) block reuptake – treatment for depression ● BRAIN PLASTICITY: Brain can “heal” itself (brain is malleable) ● NATURE VS. NURTURE: ANSWER IS BOTH o Twin Studies: ● AREAS OF THE BRAIN: Identical twins – Monozygotic (MZ) ● Hindbrain: oldest part of the brain Fraternal twins – Dizygotics (DZ) o Cere bell um – movement/balance o Genetics: MZ twins will have a higher (walking a tightrope balancing a bell) percentage of also developing a disease o Medulla – vital organs (HR, BP) o Environment: MZ twins raised in o Pon s – sleep/arousal (Pon zzzzzz ) different environments show differences ● ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: sends ● Midbrain o Reticular formation: alertness hormones throughout the body o Pituitary Gland: Controlled by ● Forebrain: higher thought processes o Limbic System hypothalamus. release growth hormones o Adrenal Glands: related to sympathetic ▪ Amygdala: emotions, fear (Amy, da! You’re so emotional!) NS: releases adrenaline ▪ Hippocampus: memory (if you saw a ● BRAIN IMAGING: hippo on campus you’d remember it!) o EEG: brain activity – not specific ▪ Hypothalamus : Reward/pleasure o XRAY: not useful, doesn’t show tissues center, eating behaviors – link to o CT / MRI: shows structures (tumors) endocrine system o PET: glucose shows brain activity (when o Thalamus: relay center for all but in doubt pick this one) smell (you MUST (thalaMUST) use o fMRI: glucose shows activity: real time your thalamus, unless its MUSTY – o lesion – destruction of brain tissue smell) ● STATES of CONSCIOUSNESS: o Cerebral Cortex: outer portion of the o Higher-Level: controlled processes – brain – higher order thought processes totally aware ▪ Occipital Lobe: vision – mom’s eyes! o Lower-Level: automatic processing ▪ Frontal Lobe: decision making, (daydreaming, phone numbers) planning, judgment, movement, o Altered States: produced through drugs, personality fatigue, hypnosis ▪ Parietal Lobe: sensations o Subconscious: Sleeping and dreaming ▪ Temporal Lobe: hearing and face o No awareness: Knocked out recognition ● SLEEP: ▪ Somatosensory Cortex: map of our Beta Waves: awake (you betta be awake sensory receptors –in parietal lobe for the exam) ▪ Motor Cortex: map of our motor Alpha Waves: high amp., drowsy receptors – located in frontal lobe NREM (non REM) stageso Stage o Left hemisphere only – damage results 1: light in aphasia (damaged speech) sleep ▪ Broca’s Area: Inability to produce speech (Broca – Broken speech) ▪ Wernicke’s Area: can’t comprehend speech (Wernicke’s what?) Stage 2: bursts of sleep spindles Stage 3 Delta waves: D eep sleep Rapid Eye Movement (REM): dreaming, cognitive processing o Corpus Callosum: bundle of nerves that Entire cycle takes 90 minutes, REM connects the 2 hemispheres – sometimes occurs inb/w each cycle. REM lasts severed in patients with severe seizures – longer throughout the night leads to “split-brain patients” ▪ Split-brain experiments: done by Sperry ● CIRCADIAN RHYTHM: 24 hour biological clock & Gazzaniga. o Body temp & sleep ▪ Image shown to R eye processed in L o Controlled by the Suprachiasmatic hemi – patient can say what they saw; nucleus (SCN) in the brain image shown to L eye processed in R o Explains jet lag hemi, can’t say what was seen ● SLEEP DISORDERS o Insomnia: Inability to fall asleep (due to stress/anxiety) o Sleep walking/talking: (due to fatigue, drugs, alcohol) – NOT during REM o Night terrors: extreme nightmares – NOT in REM sleep – typical in children o Narcolepsy: fall asleep out of nowhere (due to deficiency in orexin) o Sleep Apnea: stop breathing suddenly while asleep (due to obesity usually) ● DREAM THEORIES: o Freud’s Unconscious Wish Fulfillment: Dreaming is gratification of unconscious desires and needs Latent Content: hidden meaning Manifest Content: obvious storyline ● Activation Synthesis: Brain produces random bursts of energy – stimulating lodged memories in limbic sys. Dreams start random then develop meaning ● PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS: o Triggers dopamine release in the brain o Depressants: Alcohol, barbiturates, tranquilizers, opiates (narcotics) Decrease sympathetic NS activation, highly addictive o Stimulants: Amphetamines, Cocaine, MDMA (ecstasy), Caffeine, Nicotine Increase sympathetic NS activation, highly addictive o Hallucinogens: LSD, Marijuana Causes hallucinations, less addictive o Tolerance: Needing more of a drug to achieve the same effects o Dependence: Become addicted to the drug – must have it to avoid withdrawal symptoms o Withdrawal: Psychological and physiological symptoms associated with sudden stoppage. Unpleasant – can kill you. ● ABSOLUTE THRESHOLD: detection of signal 50% of time (is it there) ● DIFFERENCE THRESHOLD (also called a just noticeable difference (JND) and follows WEBER’S LAW: two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum proportion. (Can you tell a change?) ● SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY ● Sensory Adaptation: diminished sensitivity as a result of constant stimulation (can you feel your underwear?) o Sensory Habituation: diminished sensitivity due to regular exposure (do you notice the train?) ● Perceptual Set (mental set): tendency to see something as part of a group – speeds up signal processing we form a ● MONOCULAR CUES how ( 3D image from a 2D image) o Interposition: overlapping images appear closer o Relative Size: 2 objects that are usually similar in size, the smaller one is further away o Relative Clarity: hazy objects appear further away o Texture Gradient: coarser objects are closer o Relative Height: things higher in our field of vision look further away o Linear Perspective: parallel lines ● Inattentional Blindness: failure to notice converge with distance (think railroad something added b/c you’re so focused on tracks) another task (gorilla video) ● BINOCULAR CUES : (how both eyes ● Change Blindness: failure to notice a make up a 3D image) change in the scene (door study) Retinal Disparity: Image is cast slightly ● Cocktail party effect : notice your name different on each retina, location of across the room when its spoken, when image helps us determine depth you weren’t previously paying attention Convergence: Eyes strain more (looking ● VISUAL SYSTEM: inward) as objects draw nearer o Cornea – protects the eye ● TOP-DOWN PROCESSING: Whole ฀ o Pupil/iris – controls amount of light smaller parts (painting w/ faces) entering eye ● BOTTOM-UP PROCESSING: Smaller o Lens – focuses light on retina Parts ฀ Whole ( dog of bunch of dots) o Retina – contains rods and cones ● AUDITORY SYSTEM: o Fovea– area of best vision(cones here) o Pathway of sound: sound ฀ pinna ฀ o Rods – black/white, dim light auditory canal ฀ ear drum (tympanic o Cones – color, bright light (red, green, blue) membrane) ฀ hammer, anvil, stirrup o Bipolar cells – connect rods/cones and (HAS) ฀ oval window ฀ cochlea ฀ ganglion cells auditory nerve ฀ temporal lobes o Ganglion cells – opponent-processing o Outer Ear: pinna (ear), auditory canal occurs here o Middle Ear: ear drum, HAS (bones o Blind spot – occurs where the optic vibrate to send signal) nerve leaves the eye o Inner Ear: cochlea – like COCHELLA o Feature detectors – specialized cells (sounds 1 st processed here) that see motion, shapes, lines, etc. ● THEORIES OF HEARING: both occur located in occipital lobe (experiments by in the cochlea Hubel & Weisel) o Place theory – location where hair cells ● THEORIES OF COLOR VISION: bends determines sound (high pitches) o Trichromatic – three cones for o Frequency theory – rate at which action receiving color (blue, red, green) potentials are sent determines sound ▪ Explains color blindness - they are (low pitches) missing a cone type ● OTHER SENSES: o Opponent Process – complementary o Touch: Mechanoreceptors ฀ spinal cord colors are processed in ganglion cells – ฀ thalamus ฀ somatosensory cortex explains why we see an after image o Pain (nociception): Gate-control theory: ● Visual Capture: Visual system we have a “gate” to control how much overwhelms all others (nauseous in an pain is experienced IMAX theater – vision trumps vestibular) o Kinesthetic (proprioception): Sense of ● Constancies: recognize that objects do body position (neurons in ligaments & not physically change despite changes in body tell you this) sensory input (size, shape, brightness) o Vestibular: Sense of balance ● Phi Phenomenon: adjacent lights blink (semicircular canals in the inner ear on/off in succession – looks like effect this) movement (traffic signs with arrows) o Taste (gustation): 5 taste receptors: ● Stroboscopic movement: motion bitter, salty, sweet, sour, umami (savory) produced by a rapid succession of slightly varying images (animations) o Smell (olfaction): Only sense that does NOT route through the thalamus 1st. Goes to temporal lobe and amygdala ● GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY: Whole is greater than the sum of its parts Gestalt Principles: ▪ Figure/ground : organize information into figures objects (figures) that stand apart from surrounds (back ground) ▪ Closure: mentally fill in gaps ▪ Proximity : group things together that appear near each other ▪ Similarity : group things together based off of looks ▪ Continuity: tendency to mentally form a continuous line CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: PAVLOV! o Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): causes response w/o needing to be learned (food) o Unconditioned Response (UCR): response that naturally occurs w/o training (salivate) o Neutral Response (NS): stimulus that normally doesn’t evoke a response (bell) o Conditioned Stimulus (CS): once NS that now brings about a response (bell) o Conditioned Response (CR): response after conditioning, follows a CS (salivate) o Contiguity: Timing of the pairing, NS/CS must be presented .5-1 sec BEFORE the US o Acquisition: process of learning the response pairing o Extinction: previously conditioned response dies out over time o Spontaneous Recovery: After a period of time the CR comes back out of nowhere o Generalization: CR to like stimuli (similar sounding bell) o Discrimination: CR to ONLY the CS CONTINGENCY MODEL: R escorla & Wagner – classical conditioning involves cognitive processes CONDITIONED TASTE AVERSION (ONE-TRIAL LEARNING): J ohn Garcia – Innate predispositions can allow classical conditioning to occur in one trial (food poisoning) John Watson (father of behaviorism) and Little Albert – conditioned a fear in a baby – eventually leads to behavioral treatments for fear (counterconditioning) O Variable schedules are most resistant to extinction ( how long will keep playing a slot machine before you think its broken?) OPERANT CONDITIONING: SKINNER! O LAW OF EFFECT (T horndike): SOCIAL (OBSERVATIONAL) LEARNING: BANDURA! Behaviors followed by pos. outcomes are strengthened, neg. outcomes weaken ● Modeling Behaviors: Children model a behavior (cat in the puzzle box) (imitate) behaviors. Study used BoBo ● PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT COND: dolls to demonstrate the following O Pos. Reinforcement: Addsomething O Prosocial – helping behaviors nice to increasea behavior (gold star for O Antisocial – mean behaviors ● MISC LEARNING TYPES turning in HW) O Latent learning ( Tolman!) – O Neg. Reinforcement: Take away learning is something bad/annoyingto increasea hidden until useful (rats in maze get behavior (put on seatbelt to take away reinforced half way through, annoying car signal) performance improved O Pos. Punishment: Addsomething badto Cognitive maps – mental decrease a behavior (spanking) representation of an area, allows O Neg. Punishment: Take away navigation if blocked something good to decreasea behavior O I nsight learning (Kohler!) – some (take away car keys) learning is through simple intuition O Primary Reinforcers: innately (chimps with crates to get bananas) satisfying (food and water) O L earned Helplessness (Seligman!) – no O Secondary Reinforcers: everything else matter what you do you never get a (stickers, high-fives) positive outcome so you just give up Token Reinforcer: type of secondary(word scrambles) can be exchanged for other stuff (game tokens or money) O Generalization: respond to similar ENCODING: Getting info into memory stimulus for reward O Discrimination: stimulus signals when ● Automatic encoding – requires no effort behavior will or will not be reinforced (what did you have for breakfast?) (light on means response are accepted) ● Effortful encoding – requires attention O Extinction / Spontaneous Recovery: (school work) same as classical conditioning ● Shallow, intermediate, deep processing: O Overjustification Effect: reinforcing the more emphasis on MEANING the behaviors that are intrinsically deeper the processing, and the better motivating causes you to stop doing remembered them (give a child 5$ for reading when ● Imagery – attaching images to information they already like to read – they stop makes it easier to remember (shoe w/ reading) spaghetti laces) O Shaping: use successive approximations ● Self-referent encoding – we better to train behavior (reward desired remember what we’re interested in (you’d behaviors to teach a response – rat remember someone’s phone number who basketball) you found extremely attractive) O Continuous Reinforcement schedule: ● Dual encoding – combining different Receive reward for every response types of encoding aids in memory O Fixed Ratio schedule: Reward every X ● Chunking – break info into smaller units number of response (every 10 envelopes to aid in memory (like a phone #) stuffed get $$) ● Mnemonics – shortcuts to help us O Fixed Interval schedule: Reward every remember info easier X amount of time passed (every 2 weeks o Acronyms – using letter to remember get a paycheck) something (PEMDAS) O Variable Ratio schedule: Rewarded o Method of loci – using locations to after a random number of responses (slot remember a list of items in order machine o Peg-word – using a rhyme w/ O Variable Interval schedule: Rewarded imagery to remember lists in order after a random amount of time has ● Context dependent memory – where passed (fishing) you learn the info you best remember the info (scuba divers testing) ● State dependent memory – the physical state you were in when learning is the way you should be when testing (study high, test high) STORAGE : Retaining info over time ● Information Processing Model – Sensory memory, short term memory, long term memory model ● Sensory Memory – stores all incoming stimuli that you receive (first you have to a pay attention) o Iconic Memory – visual memory, lasts 0.3 seconds o Echoic Memory – auditory memory, lasts 2-3 seconds ● Short Term Memory – info passes from sensory memory to STM – lasts 30 secs, and can remember 7 ± 2 items o Rehearsal (repeating the info) resets the clock ● Working Memory Model splits STM into 2 – visual spatial memory (from iconic mem) and phonological loop (from echoic mem). A “central executive” puts it together before passing it to LTM ● Long term memory – lasts a life time o Explicit (Declarative): Conscious recollection ▪ Episodic: events ▪ Semantic: facts o Implicit (Nondeclarative): unconscious recollection ▪ Classical conditioning ▪ Priming: info that is seen earlier “primes” you to remember something later on ▪ Procedural: skills ● Memory organization o Hierarchies: memory is stored according to a hierarchy o Semantic networks: linked memories are stored together o Schemas: preexisting mental concept of how something should look (like a restaurant) ● Memory storage o Acetylcholine neurons in the hippocampus for most memories o Cerebellum for procedural memories o Long-term potentiation: neural basis of memory – connections are strengthened over time with repeated stimulation (more firing of neurons) RETRIEVAL: Taking info out of storage ● Serial Position Effect: tendency to remember the beginning (primacy effect) and the end (recency effect) of the list best ● Recall: remember what you’ve been told w/o cues (essays) ● Recognition: remember what you’ve been told w/ cues (MC) ● Flashbulb memories: particularly vivid memories for highly important events (9/11 attacks) ● Repressed memories: unconsciously buried memories – are unreliable ● Encoding failure: forget info b/c you never encoded it (paid attention to it) in the first place (which is the real penny) ● Encoding specificity principle: the more closely retrieval cues match the way we learned the info, the better we remember the info (like state dependent memory) ● Forgetting curve: recall decreases rapidly at first, then reaches a plateau after which little more is forgotten (EBBINGHAUS) o Inborn universal grammar: NOAM CHOMSKY – says that language is innate; we are predisposed to learn it o Critical period: period of time where something must be learned or else it cannot ever happen (language must be learned young – Genie the Wild Child) o Linguistic determinism: language influences the way we think (Hopi have no words for past, do not think about the past) developed by WHORF THINKING ● Metacognition: thinking about (reflecting upon) the way you think ● Concepts: mental categories used to group objects, events, characteristics ● Prototypes: all instances of a concept are compared to an ideal example (what you first think of) ● Proactive interference O LD blocks new ● Retroactive interference N EW blocks old ● Misinformation effect: distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformation ( Loftus – lost in the mall, Disney land) ● Framing – the way a question is framed impacts how info is recalled / perceived ● Anterograde amnesia: amnesia moves forward (forget new info – 50 first dates) ● Retrograde amnesia: amnesia moves backwards (forget old info) ● ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE : caused by destruction of acetylcholine in hippocampus LANGUAGE ● Phonemes: smallest unit of sound (ch sound in chat) ● Morpheme: smallest unit that caries meaning (-ed means past tense) ● Grammar: rules in a language that enable us to communicate ● Semantics: set of rules by which we derive meaning (adding –ed makes something past tense) ● Syntax: rules for combining words into sentences (white house vs casa blanca) ● Babbling stage: 1 st stage of speech ● One-word stage: duh ● Two-word stage: duh duh (telegraphic speech) ● Theories of language development: o Imitation: Kids repeat what they hear – but they don’t do it perfectly ▪ Overregularization: grammar mistake where children over use certain morphemes (I go-ed to the park) o Operant conditioning: reinforced for language use ● Algorithms: step by step strategies that guarantee a solution (formula) ● Heuristics: short cut strategy (rule of thumb) o Representative Heuristic: make inferences based on your experience (like a stereotype) – assume someone must be a librarian b/c they’re quiet o Availability heuristic: relying on availability to judge the frequency of something (over estimating death due to plane crashes due to recent events) ● Functional Fixedness: keep using one strategy – cannot think outside of the box ● Belief bias: tendency of one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning by making invalid conclusions ● Belief perseverance: tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face on contrary evidence ● Confirmation bias: look for evidence to support what we already believe ● Inductive reasoning: data driven decisions, specific to general ● Deductive reasoning: driven by logic, general to specific ● Divergent thinking: ability to think about many different things at once (Creative) Convergent thinking: limits creativity – one answer INDIVIDUAL THEORIES ABOUT INTELLIGENCE ● GALTON: 1 st to suggest intelligence was inherited. Intelligence based on muscle strength, size of head, reaction time, etc. ● CATTELL: 2 clusters of mental abilities o Crystalized intelligence: reasoning and verbal skills - what you learn in school – the cold hard (like crystals!) facts, increase w/ time o Fluid intelligence: spatial abilities, rote memory, things that come natural to you – can’t learn in school. decrease over time ● SPEARMAN’S G FACTOR: said a general intelligence (g) underlies all mental abilities (typical IQ of today) ● GARDNER: multiple intelligences (8): linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal (self), interpersonal (social), naturalist ● STERNBERG: TRIARCHIC THEORY o Analytical: mental components to solve problems, what IQ tests assess (book smarts) o Practical: ability to size up new situations and adapt to real-life demands (street smarts) o Creative: intellectual and motivational processes that lead to novel solutions, idea, products ● BINET : developed 1 st intelligence test, combined with TERMAN – developed the STANFORD-BINET IQ TEST o Chronological age = actual age o Mental age = tested age compared to other of that age o 100 is average ● WECHSLER: developed the WAIS and WISC – most commonly used today ● FLYNN effect: IQ has steadily risen over the past 80 years – probably due to education standards and better IQ tests ● Extremes of Intelligence: high IQ = above 135; intellectually disadvantage = below 70 ● Causes of mild intellectual disadvantage: o PKU – liver fails to produce an enzyme needed to breakdown chemicals – leads to brain damage o Down syndrome – extra copy of 21 st chromosome o Fragile X – higher chance in boys due to ONE X chromosome ● Influence on IQ: o Genetics: MZ twins have similar IQ, adopted kids more similar to biological parents o Environment: early neglect leads to lower IQ, good schooling to higher IQ ● Types of Tests: o Aptitude: predicts your abilities to learn a new skill (ASVAB) o Achievement: tests what you know(SAT) ● TEST CREATION: o Standardization: administer a test to a representative sample of future test takers to establish a basis for meaningful comparison (test it out 1 st ) o Should be reliable: same results over time Split-half reliability: compare two halves of the test Test-retest reliability: use the same test on 2 different occasions o Should be valid: test is accurate – measures what it is intended to Content validity: test measures what you want it to (an IQ test actually measures IQ) Predictive validity: test is able to accurately predict a trait (high math scores predicts good engineer) ● Standardized tests establish a normal distribution ● Standard deviations are used to compare scores. Standard deviation measures how much the scores vary from the mean. The percentages stay the same in every curve ● Prenatal Development : o Zygote: 0 – 14 days, cells are dividing o Embryo: until about 9 weeks, vital organs being formed o Fetus: 9 wks to birth, overall development o Teratogens: external agents that can cause abnormal prenatal development (alcohol, drugs, etc) ▪ Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): large amount of alcohol leads to FAS, causes deformities, mental disability, death ● Physical Development: o Maturation: natural course of development, occurs no matter what (walking) o Reflexes: innate responses we’re born with ▪ Rooting, sucking, swallowing, grasping, stepping, babinski o Eyes have the most limited development, takes till 1 year ▪ Visual cliff: babies have to learn depth perception, so they will cross a “cliff” o Other senses are fairly developed o Brain development continues for a few years ● JEAN PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEV. ● Schemas – concepts or frameworks that organize info ● Assimilation: incorporate new info into existing schema (aSSimlation – same stuff) ● Accommodation: adjust existing schemas to incorporate new information (ACcommodation - All Change) ● Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to 2 years: focused on exploring the world around them o Lack Object Permanence: Objects when removed from field of view are thought to disappear (peek-a-boo) o Dev. Sense of Self:by 2 yrs can recognize themselves in the mirror (blush test) ● Pre-operational Stage: 2 – 7 years: use pretend play, developing language, using intuitive reasoning o Lack Conservation: recognize that substances remain the same despite changes in shape, length, or position (girls with juice in glasses) o Lack Reversibility: cannot do reverse operations (count out both 4+2 and 2+4) o Are egocentric: inability to distinguish one’s own perspective from another’s – think everyone sees what they see ● Concrete Operational Stage: 7-11 yrs: use operational thinking, classification, and can think logical in concrete context ● Formal Operational Stage: 11-15 yrs:use abstract and idealist thoughts, hypothetical-deductive reasoning ● Problems with Piaget’s theory : stages to discrete, dev. differs b/w kids ● VYGOTSKY’S THEORY: cognitive development is a social process too, need to interact w/ others o Zone of Proximal Development: gap b/w what a child can do on their own and w/ support. Need scaffolding (teachers) SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT ● Temperament: patterns of emotional reactions and babies (precursor to personality) ● Imprinting: baby geese believe the first thing they see after hatching is their mom – happens during a critical period (from LORENZ) ● HARRY HARLOW: discovered that contact comfort is more important than feeding (monkeys fed on wire or cloth mothers). Monkeys raised in isolation couldn’t socialize ● BAUMRIND: parenting styles o Authoritarian: rules & obedience, “my way or the highway” – kids lack initiative in college o Permissive: kids do whatever – no rules – kids lack initiative in college o Authoritative: give and take w/ kids – kids become socially competent and reliable ● MARY AINSWORTH: developed the strange situation paradigm (children left alone in a room w/ a stranger, then reunited w/ mom – determines your attachment style o Secure attachment (60% of infants): upset when mom leaves, easily calmed on return. Tend to be more stable adults o Avoidant attachment (20% infants): actively avoids mom, doesn’t care when she leaves o Ambivalent attachment(10% infants): actively avoids mom, freaks out when she leaves o Disorganized attachment (5%): confused, fearful, dazed – result of abuse ● KOHLBERG’S MORAL DEV o Preconventional morality: Children: they follow rules to avoid punishment o Conventional morality: adolescents: follow rules b/c rules exist to keep order o Postconventional morality: adults: they do what they believe is right (even if it goes against society) ● Carol Gilligan: said moral reasoning and moral behaviors are two different things (what you say isn’t always what you do) ● Also said mean use “justice” for postcon. women use “caring for others” ● ERIKSON’S SOCIOEMOTINAL DEV. : 8 stages, each stage represents a crisis that must be resolved, results in competence or weakness o Trust vs Mistrust (birth – 18 months) : if needs are dependably met infants dev basic trust o Autonomy vs shame&doubt ( 1 -3 yrs): toddlers learn to exercise their will and think for themselves o Initiative vs guilt (3-6 yrs): learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans o Industry vs inferiority (6 yrs to puberty): learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks o Identity vs role confusion : (adolescence thru 20s ): refine a sense of self by testing roles and forming an identity o Intimacy vs isolation : ( 20s—40s): form close relationships and gain capacity for love o Generativity vs stagnation : (40s-60s): discover sense of contributing to the world, thru family & work o Integrity vs despair : ( 60s and up): reflect on your life, feel satisfaction or failure ● PUBERTY! ( rapid skeletal and sexual maturation) o Primary sex characteristics: necessary structures for reproduction (ovaries, testicles, vagina, penis) o Secondary sex characteristics: nonreproductive characteristics that dev during puberty (breasts, hips, deepening of voice, body hair) o Frontal lobe continuous dev (not fully developed till 25) ● GENDER DEVELOPMENT: sex = chromosomes, gender = what you identify yourself as o Gender roles: expected behaviors (norms) for men/women o Social learning theory: we learn gender roles and identity from those around us ● AGING: o Cellular clock theory: cells have a maximum # of divisions before they can’t divide anymore o Free-radical theory: unstable oxygen molecules w/in cells damage DNA o Over time skills decrease (reaction time, memory) ● CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY : studies ppl of different ages at the same point in time o Adv: inexpensive & quick o Disadv: can be differences due to generational gap ● LONGITUDINAL STUDY: studies same ppl over time o Adv: eliminates groups differences, lots of detail o Disadv: expensive, time consuming, high drop out rates motivates you to satisfy the need (driven by homeostasis: equilibrium) o Primary drive: unlearned drive based on survival (hunger, thirst) o Secondary drive: learned drive (wealth or success) ● INCENTIVE THEORY: driven by external rewards ● OPTIMUM AROUSAL: humans seek optimum levels of arousal –easier tasks requires more arousal, harder tasks need less ● HIERARCHY OF NEEDS: theory derived by MASLOW – needs lower in the pyramid have priority over needs higher in the pyramid ● Intrinsic motivation: inner motivation – you do it b/c you like it ● Extrinsic motivation: motivation to obtain a reward (trophy) HUNGER ● Signals of hunger: o Stomach contractions tell us we’re hungry o Glucose (sugar) level is maintained by the pancreas (endocrine system) . o Insulin decreases glucose. Too little glucose makes us hungry. o Hormones signal eat: orexin, Ghrelin o Hormones signal stop: PYY, leptin o Lateral hypothalamus: stimulated makes you hungry; lesioned you will never eat again. ( I’m LATE for lunch. I’m hungry. The LATEral hypothalamus makes you hungry .) o Ventromedial hypothalamus: when stimulated you feel full, when destroyed you eat eat eat eat (fat woman and cake) ● Obesity: THEORIES OF MOTIVATION o Increased risk of heart attack, ● INSTINCT: complex behaviors have fixed hypertension, atherosclerosis, diabetes patterns and are not learned (explains o Can be genetic – adopted children animal motivation) resemble their biological parents ● DRIVE REDUCTION: physiological need creates aroused tension (drive) that o Set point: control system dictates how much fat you should carry – every person is different Eating Disorders: o Anorexia: weight loss of at least 15% ideal weight, distorted body image Causes: overly critical parents, perfectionist tendencies, societal ideals o Bulimia: usually normal body weight, go through a binge-purge eating pattern (eat massive amounts, then throw up) Causes: same as anorexia SEXUALITY ● Biology of sex: o Hypothalamus: stimulation increases sexual behavior, destruction leads to sexual inhibition Males – testosterone Females - estrogen o Sexual Response Pattern: Excitement phase, plateau, orgasm, refractory period (resolution phase) (cannot “fire” again until you reset, guys only) o Alfred Kinsey: created Kinsey scale of homosexuality (ranges on a spectrum) Studies lacked a representative sample o Homosexuality: biological roots: differences in the brain, identical twins more likely to both be gay, later sons more likely to be (hormones from mom) THORIES OF EMOTIONS Emotion Theories Cognition Theories Biological Theory (Le Doux) ● Some stimuli are routed directly to the amygdala bypassing the frontal cortex (gut reaction to a cockroach) Theories of Conflict (Lewin) ● Approach approach conflict: win – win situation; conflict is which win you have to choose (you can eat out at ONE of your two favorite restaurants – you can only choose one though) ● Behavioral factors: there are SIX universal● Approach avoidance conflict: win – lose situation; outcome has positive and emotions (happiness, anger, sadness, negative aspects (marriage) surprise, disgust, feat) seen across ALL ● Avoidance avoidance conflict : lose – cultures (Eckman’s theory) lose; both outcomes are bad but you have ● Non-verbal cues: gestures, duchenne smile to choose one (clean your room or do (you can tell a real smile from a fake one) your homework) ● Facial feedback hypothesis: being forced ● Multiple approach avoidance conflict: to smile will make you happier (cartoon two (or more) win-lose situations; conflict study with pen in mouth) is which to choose (College A is good for INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCH your major but no scholarship, College B ● Industrial / Organizational Psych: is bad for your major but has a psychof the work – employee recruitment, scholarship) training, satisfaction, productivity ● Ergonomics / Human Factors: intersection PERSONALITY THEORIES of engineering and psych – focuses on PSYCHODYNAMIC EXPLANATION safety and efficiency of human-machine SIGMUND FREUD said personality was interactions largely unconscious. ● Hawthorne effect: productivity increases ● Conscious : immediate awareness of current when workers are made to feel important environment (teacher teaches when principal comes in) ● Theory X management: manager controls ● Preconscious: available to awareness (phone #s) employees, enforces rules. Good for lower ● Unconscious: unavailable to awareness level jobs ● id: our hidden true animalistic wants and ● Theory Y management: manger gives desires – operates on the pleasure principle, employees responsibility, looks for input. all about rewards and avoiding pain (devil Good for high level jobs on your shoulder – entirely unconscious ) STRESS AND HEALTH our moral conscious ( angel on ● Problem-focused coping: solving or doing ● superego: your shoulder, all 3 consciousness ) something to alter the course of stress ● ego: reality principle, has to deal w/ society, (planning, acceptance) stuck mediating b/w the id and superego (its ● Emotion-focused coping: reducing the you! – conscious and preconscious ) emotional distress (denial, disengagement) When ego cannot mediate b/w the id and ● GENERAL ADAPTATION superego, we use defense mechanisms SYNDROME (GAS): three phases of a stress response ( SELYE came up w/ this) ● Repression: push memories back into the unconscious mind (sexual abuse is too o Alarm: body/you freak out in response to traumatic to deal w/ so you repress it) stress ● Projection: attribute personal shortcomings o Resistance: body/you are dealing with & faults on to others (man who wants to stress have an affair accuses his wife of having o Exhaustion: body/you cannot take any one) more, give up ● Denial: refuse to acknowledge reality (refuse to believe you have cancer) Displacement; shift feelings from an unacceptable object to a more acceptable one (can’t tell at teacher, go home and yell at the dog) ● Reaction formation: transform unacceptable motive into his opposite (woman who fears sexual urges becomes a religious zealot) ● Type A Personality: rigid, stressful person, ● Regression: transform into an earlier perfectionist. At risk for heart disease development period in the face of stress ● Type B Personality: laid back, nonstressed. (during exam week you start to suck your ● KAREN HORNEY: said personality ● Collectivistic Cultures: give priority to the thumb) develops in context of social relationships, goals of the group, your identity is part of ● Rationalization: replace a less acceptable NOT sexual urges (security not sex is that group (China) SOCIAL-COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE reasoning with a more acceptable one (don’t motivation, men get womb envy) TRAIT PERSPECTIVE get into your college – justify it was a sucky ● Behavior is a complex interaction of inner college anyway) ● Traits are enduring personality process and environmental influence – ● Sublimation: replace unacceptable impulse characteristics, people can be described by which influences personality w/ a socially acceptable one (man w/ strong these – have strong or weak tendencies. ● Emphasizes conscious awareness, beliefs, sexual urges paints nudes. Dexter) They are stable, genetic, and predict other expectations, and goals FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES attributes. ● BANDURA! Talked about RECIPROCAL ● Oral stage ( 0-18 months) : pleasure focuses● Use factor analysis to find these: statistical DETERMINISM: interaction of behavior, on the mouth (id) procedure used to identify similar cognitions, and ● Anal stage ( 18 – 36 months) : pleasure components environment involves eliminative functions (ego forms) ● TRAIT THEORIES: make up you. ● Phallic stage ( 3 – 6 yrs) : pleasure focuses ● Big Five: ( by Costa & McCrae) (acronym ● on genitals (superego forms) OCEAN) You vary on each of these {I’m outgoing o Oedipal complex: young boys learn to o O penness : high levels = imaginative, ( behavior ), I identify w/ their father out of fear of independent, like variety choose to teach retribution ( castration anxiety ) o C onscientiousness: high levels = b/c it lets me be o Electra complex: young girls learn to organized, careful, disciplined outgoing ( environment ), and I have identify w/ their mother b/c they cannot o E xtraversion: high levels = sociable, thought this through which is why I with their father ( penis envy) fun-loving, affectionate (opposite is teach despite making less money ● Latency stage ( 6 yrs to puberty): psychic introversion: shy, timid, reserved) ( cognitive)} time out – personality is set o A greeableness: high levels = soft ● Self-efficacy: belief that one can succeed, ● Genital State ( adulthood): sexual hearted, trusting, helpful so you ensure you do reawakening – oedipal and electra o N euroticism (emotional stability): low ● Internal locus of control: you control your “feelings” are repressed, turn sexual wants neuroticism (high stability) = calm, secure own fate onto an appropriate person What’s wrong with trait theory? – ignores ● External locus of control: chance / outside ● FIXATION: can become “stuck” in an the role of the situation in behavior forces control your fate earlier stage – influences personality (oral What’s good about it? - identifying traits What’s wrong with social-cognitive? – Too stage smokes/drinks, anal is “anal gives us perspectives about careers, specific, cannot generalize retentive”, phallic is promiscuous) relationships, health What’s good about it? – Highlights What’s wrong w/ Freud theory? – How do we test this approach? situations, and cognitive explanations of unverifiable, descriptive not predictive ● Personality Inventories like: personality st What’s good about it? – 1 theory about o MMPI – helpful for mental health and How do we test it? – Observations & personality, sparked psychoanalysis job placement interviews (time consuming) How do we test this approach? What’s wrong w/ these tests? ● Psychoanalysis: analyze a person’s ● They’re long, social desirability can be an unconscious motives thru the use of: influence, and they’re too broad HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE o Free Association: say aloud everything that comes to mind w/o hesitation ● Emphasized personal growth and free will. o Transference: looks for feelings to You don’t like yourself? So change! transferred to psychoanalyst ● CARL ROGERS: talked about our self-concept (idea of who we are). Your o Dream interpretation: analyze the manifest (seen message) and latent self-concept is the center of your personality (hidden messages) content o Actual (social) self: what others see o Projective Tests: ambiguous stimuli o Ideal (true) self: who you WANT to be shown to look at your unconscious o A positive self-concept makes us perceive motives ( THESE SUCK B/C THEY the world positively (optimist) ARE VERY SUBJECTIVE) o A negativeself-concept makes us feel ▪ Thematic apperception test (TAT) : dissatisfied and unhappy tell a story about a picture (when What wrong with humanistic theory? someone has a tattoo (tatt) you ask too optimistic about human nature, abstract what it means concepts are difficult to test ▪ Rorschach inkblot: show an inkblot What’s good about it? – emphasizes NEO-FREUDIANS conscious experiences and change ● CARL JUNG: believed in the collective ● Individualistic Cultures: give priorities to unconscious (shared inherited reservoir of own goals over group goals. Define your memory – explains common myths across identify in terms of you (American society) civilizations & time)