Chapter 7 Memory Notes 7.1 In general, how does memory work? 7.1.1Memory is an active system that encodes, stores, and retrieves information. 7.1.2The Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory includes three stages of memory (sensory memory, short-term or working memory, and long-term memory) that hold information for increasingly longer periods. 7.1.3Sensory memories are encoded as iconic memories or echoic memories. 7.1.4Selective attention determines what information moves from sensory memory, which is exact but very brief, on to STM. 7.1.5While we are normally unaware of sensory memory, we are conscious of the contents of short-term memory, which can function as a working memory, or “mental scratchpad. 7.1.6Long-term memories are best encoded by meaning. 7.2 What are the features of short-term (or working) memory? 7.2.1Short-term memories tend to be encoded by sound, are sensitive to interruption, or displacement, and, although brief, can be prolonged through maintenance rehearsal. 7.2.2When STM combines with other mental processes, it acts like a sort of “mental scratchpad, “or working memory. 7.2.3STM has a capacity of about five to seven bits of sound information, but this limit can be extended by chunking. 7.2.4For transferring information to LTM, rote rehearsal is less effective than elaborative processing. 7.3 What are the features of long-term memory? 7.3.1Long-term memories are relatively permanent. LTM seems to have an almost unlimited storage capacity. 7.3.2Remembering is an active process. Elaborative processing can have the effect of altering memories. Our memories are frequently lost, altered, revised, or distorted. 7.3.3LTM is organized into memory networks. 7.3.4In redintegration, memories are reconstructed as one bit of information leads to others, which then serve as cues for further recall. 7.3.5LTM contains procedural (skill) and declarative (fact) memories. Declarative memories can be semantic or epi-sodic. 7.4 How is memory measured? 7.4.1The tip-of-the-tongue state shows that memory is not an all-or-nothing event. Memories may be revealed by recall, recognition, relearning, or priming. 7.4.2In recall, memories are retrieved without explicit cues, as in an essay exam. Recall of listed information often reveals a serial position effect. 7.4.3A common test of recognition is the multiple-choice question. 7.4.4In relearning, material that seems to be forgotten is learned again, and memory is revealed by a savings score (the amount of time saved when relearning information). 7.4.5Recall, recognition, and relearning mainly measure explicit memories. Other techniques, such as priming, are necessary to reveal implicit memories. 7.5 Why do we forget? 7.5.1Forgetting is most rapid immediately after learning. 7.5.2Failure to encode information is a common cause of “forgetting.” 7.5.3Forgetting in sensory memory and STM is due to a failure of storage through a weakening (decay) of memory traces. STM forgetting also occurs through displacement. Decay of memory traces due to disuse may also explain some LTM losses. 7.5.4Failures of retrieval occur when information that resides in memory is nevertheless not retrieved. A lack of retrieval cues can produce retrieval failure. State-dependent learning is related to the effects of retrieval cues. 7.5.5Much forgetting in LTM is caused by interference. In retroactive interference, new learning interferes with the ability to retrieve earlier learning. Proactive interference occurs when old learning interferes with the retrieval of new learning. 7.5.6Memories can be consciously suppressed and they may be unconsciously repressed. Extreme caution is war-ranted when “recovered” memories are the only basis for believing that traumatic events, such as childhood sexual abuse, happened in the past. 7.6 How does the brain form and store memories? 7.6.1It takes time to consolidate memories. In the brain, memory consolidation takes place in the hippocampus. Until they are consolidated, long-term memories are easily destroyed, resulting in retrograde amnesia. 7.6.2Intensely emotional experiences can result in flashbulb memories. 7.6.3After memories have been consolidated, they appear to be stored in the cortex of the brain. 7.6.4Lasting memories are recorded by changes in the activity, structure, and chemistry of nerve cells, as well as in how they interconnect. 7.7 What is “exceptional” memory? 7.7.1Eidetic imagery (photographic memory) occurs when a person is able to project an image onto a blank surface. Eidetic imagery is rarely found in adults. 7.7.2Some individuals have exceptional episodic memories; others have exceptional semantic memories. 7.7.3Exceptional memory may be based on natural ability or learned strategies. Usually, it involves both. 7.8. How can I improve my memory? 7.8.1Memory can be improved through better encoding strategies, such as chunking, using mental images, and elaborating, as well as whole learning, the progressive-part method, encoding retrieval cues, overlearning, and spaced practice. 7.8.2Memory also can be improved through better retrieval strategies, such as using active search strategies and retrieval practice, which involves feedback, recitation, and review. 7.9 What are mnemonic devices? 7.9.1Mnemonic devices use bizarre or exaggerated verbal associations and mental images to link new information with familiar memories already stored in LTM. 7.9.2Mnemonic devices include acrostics, mental imagery (including the keyword method), and stories or chains (including the method of loci). 7.9.3Mnemonic devices greatly improve immediate memory. However, conventional learning tends to create the most lasting memories. 7.10 How can good presentation skills help me in my personal and professional life? 7.10.1Multimedia presentations involve both visual and auditory information. The multimedia principle states that people learn more from words and graphics together than they do from words alone. 7.10.2We can process very limited amounts of information through the auditory and visual channels at a specific time. 7.10.3We remember information best when we select import-ant information, organize it in a meaningful way, and integrate it with other existing information. 7.10.4Effective presentations consider audience demographics. 7.10.5You can help the audience select important information by eliminating irrelevant background distractions and information from slides, putting a few main points per slide and highlighting them, and using headlines rather than titles for each slide. 7.10.6You can help your audience organize information by outlining your presentation as a story, clearly structuring points, and making complementary use of the auditory and visual channels. 7.10.7You can help the audience integrate information by highlighting connections between information and external knowledge. Memory Mental system for receiving, encoding, storing, organizing, altering, and retrieving information. Encoding (in memory) Converting information into a form to be retained in memory. Storage (in memory) Holding information in memory for later use. Retrieval (in memory) Recovery of stored information. Sensory memory Fleeting storage system for sensory impressions. Iconic memory A mental image or visual representation. Echoic memory A brief continuation of sensory activity in the auditory system after a sound is heard. Short-term memory (STM) Storage system used to hold small amounts of information in conscious awareness for about a dozen seconds. Long-term memory (LTM) Unlimited capacity storage system that can hold information over lengthy periods of time. Working memory Another name for short-term memory, especially as it is used for thinking and problem solving. Mental images Mental pictures or visual depictions used in memory and thinking. Maintenance rehearsal Repeating information over and over to keep it active in shortterm memory. Rote rehearsal (rote learning) Learning by simple repetition. Elaborative processing Making memories more meaningful through processing that encodes links between new information and existing memories and knowledge, either at the time of the original encoding or on subsequent retrievals. Information bits Meaningful units of information, such as numbers, letters, words, or phrases. Chunking Process of grouping similar or meaningful information together. Multimedia principle The idea that people process words and mental images together better than they do words alone. False memory A memory that can seem accurate but is not. Source confusion (in memory) Occurs when the origins of a memory are misremembered. Network model (of memory) A model of memory that views it as an organized system of linked information. Retrieval cue Any information that can prompt or trigger the retrieval of particular memories. Retrieval cues usually enhance memory. Redintegration Process by which memories are reconstructed or expanded by starting with one memory and then following chains of association to other, related memories. Cognitive interview Use of various cues and strategies to improve the memory of eyewitnesses. Procedural memory That part of long-term memory for how to do things that require motor or performance skills. Declarative memory That part of long-term memory containing specific factual information. Semantic memory A subpart of declarative memory that records impersonal knowledge about the world. Episodic memory A subpart of declarative memory that records personal experiences that are linked with specific times and places. Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) state The feeling that a memory is available but not quite retrievable. Availability (in memory) Memories currently stored in memory are available. Accessibility (in memory) Memories currently stored in memory that can be located when necessary are both available and accessible. Recall Retrieval of information with a minimum of external cues. Serial position effect When remembering an ordered list, the tendency to make the most errors with middle items. Recognition Ability to correctly identify previously learned information. Relearning Learning again something that was previously learned. Used to measure memory of prior learning. Explicit memory A recollection that a person is aware of having or is consciously retrieved. Implicit memory A recollection that a person does not know exists and is retrieved unconsciously. Priming Facilitating the retrieval of an implicit memory by using cues to activate hidden memories. Encoding failure Failure to store sufficient information to form a useful memory. Decay theory Proposition that the strength of memories weakens over time, making them harder to retrieve. Memory traces Physical changes in neurons or brain activity that take place when memories are stored. Disuse (in memory) Proposition that memory traces weaken when memories are not periodically used or retrieved. Retrieval failure Failure to access (locate) memories even though they are available (stored in memory). State-dependent learning Memory influenced by one’s physical state at the time of learning and at the time of retrieval. Improved memory occurs when the physical states match. Interference The tendency for new memories to impair retrieval of older memories, and the reverse. Retroactive interference The tendency for new memories to interfere with the retrieval of old memories. Proactive interference The tendency for old memories to interfere with the retrieval of newer memories. Positive transfer Mastery of one task aids learning or performing another. Negative transfer Mastery of one task conflicts with learning or performing another. Repression Keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious. Suppression A conscious effort to put something out of mind or to keep it from awareness. Amnesia Inability to form or retrieve memories of events due to an injury or trauma. Retrograde amnesia Inability to retrieve memories of events that occurred before an injury or trauma. Anterograde amnesia Inability to form or retrieve memories of events that occur after an injury or trauma. Consolidation Process by which relatively permanent memories are formed in the brain. Hippocampus Part of the limbic system associated with storing memories. Flashbulb memory Especially vivid and detailed recollection of an emotional event. Long-term potentiation Brain mechanism used to form lasting memories by strengthening the connection between neurons that become more active at the same time. Eidetic imagery The ability to retain a “projected” mental image long enough to use it as a source of information. Spaced practice A practice schedule that alternates study periods with brief rests. Massed practice A practice schedule in which studying continues for long periods, without interruption. Mnemonic device A strategy for enhancing memory. Keyword method As an aid to memory, using a familiar word or image to link two items.